{"jewishPopulation":{"meta":{"title":"World Jewish population over time and by country","compiled":"2026-09-24","description":"World core Jewish population from 1880 to 2025, and figures for 31 countries or historical states at benchmark years (1900, 1933, 1939, 1948, 1970, 2000, 2024 and 2025, where data exist). Modern figures (1945 onward) come from Sergio DellaPergola's revised series in the American Jewish Year Book and from Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics. Pre-war and 1948 country figures come from the American Jewish Year Book of the time and from the US Holocaust Memorial Museum.","fields":{"world.core":"Best available core estimate for that year. Where no estimate on the revised basis was published for that exact year, the value is a geometric interpolation between the two nearest revised estimates, rounded to the nearest thousand; see 'method'.","world.low / world.high":"The lowest and highest other published estimates for that year that we found. These show how far published numbers disagree; they are not statistical confidence intervals. Null means no other estimate was found.","world.method":"'revised' = DellaPergola's revised estimate as printed in the source; 'published' = a figure printed in the source for that date; 'interpolated' = computed by us as described in world.core.","world.asOf":"Reference date stated by the source, where given.","byCountry.series.dataYear":"Given when the underlying count or estimate refers to a different year than the benchmark year (for example, a 1926 census shown at the 1933 benchmark).","byCountry.series.basis":"'revised' = later revised estimate; 'contemporary' = figure published at or near the time; 'sum' = our addition of figures shown separately in the same source; 'derived' = our calculation from figures in the source, explained in the note."},"caveats":["Country figures use the borders of the time unless the note says otherwise. DellaPergola's revised 1970 figures and all figures from 2000 onward follow present-day borders (former Soviet republics shown separately). The USSR and Czechoslovakia entries show the whole historical state and, after its breakup, the sum of its successor states.","Figures for 1939 and 1948 come mostly from estimates published in 1939-40 and 1948-49. Later research has refined some of them. They are included as the best country-level benchmarks available on a single basis.","The 1948 country figures from the American Jewish Year Book include Jewish displaced persons in Germany, Austria and Italy.","Country figures for 1900 to 1948 are mostly contemporary estimates and do not always add up to the revised world totals.","Values under 100 are not published for individual countries; those countries show no 2024 or 2025 point."]},"definitions":{"core":"The 'core' Jewish population, the measure used in every 'core' number in this file, counts people who describe themselves as Jewish (by religion or otherwise) and do not hold another monotheistic religion, plus people with Jewish parents who do not currently call themselves Jewish but have not taken up another religion. Converts to Judaism are included; people of Jewish descent who adopted another religion are not. The concept was first proposed by Barry Kosmin and colleagues in 1991; demographer Sergio DellaPergola (Hebrew University) applies it worldwide in his annual American Jewish Year Book estimates, which Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, the Jewish Agency and JPR all use. In Israel the count follows official statistics, where Jewish status is recorded under Interior Ministry rules rather than by self-description alone, and it includes Jewish residents of East Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Golan Heights. The measure does not try to apply Jewish religious law on who is a Jew.","enlarged":"The 'enlarged' Jewish population adds to the core: people who say they are partly Jewish, other people with a Jewish parent who do not currently identify as Jewish, people who report a Jewish background without a Jewish parent, and all non-Jewish members of households that include a core Jew (spouses, children and so on). DellaPergola also reports two related measures: people with at least one Jewish parent (between core and enlarged) and people eligible to immigrate to Israel under the Law of Return (Jews, their children and grandchildren, and their spouses). In the 2025 edition, as published by JPR, he puts the world core at 15,809,000; people with a Jewish parent at 18,766,649; the enlarged population at 21,724,467; and the Law of Return population at 24,682,248. For 1 January 2024 the figures were 15,736,800; 18,755,661 (one table in the chapter prints 18,755,611); 21,774,677; and 24,735,988.","coreSourceIds":["s1","s3","s41","s46"],"enlargedSourceIds":["s1","s2","s3"],"note":"Estimates differ for five main reasons. (1) Definitions: a count that includes people who are partly Jewish or Jewish by background produces a larger number. In the United States, for example, DellaPergola's core estimate for 2024 is 6.3 million, while Pew Research Center's broader 'net Jewish population' for 2020 was 7.5 million, and estimates built by adding up local community studies are also well above the core figure. (2) Sources: some countries count Jews in a census or population register, others rely on surveys or community lists, and for some the figure is close to a guess. DellaPergola grades each country from A (reliable) to D (speculative). (3) Revisions: estimates are corrected backwards when new data arrive. Revisions can go either way. The world figure for 2020, first published as 14,787,200, now stands at 15,380,600, mainly because the US figure was raised from 5.70 million to 6.28 million after the 2020 Pew survey; the figure for 1990 was also raised, while the figures published for 1960 to 1980 were cut. (4) Older contemporary counts: the American Jewish Year Book figures from the late 1950s to 1980 are well above today's revised figures for the same years. For example, the 1971 Year Book put the end of 1970 at 13.95 million, against a revised 12.7 million for 1 January 1970; most of the gap comes from its higher figures for the Soviet Union (2.62 million against a census count of about 2.15 million), the United States (5.87 million against a revised 5.52 million) and Argentina (500,000 against a revised 282,000). (5) History and borders: figures before 1950 rest on censuses taken in different years under borders that later changed, and the war years were measured only roughly. Published world totals for the same pre-war year can differ by up to about a million (for 1922: 14.4 versus 15.4 million), so treat pre-1950 figures as approximate.","noteSourceIds":["s1","s35","s36","s44","s49"]},"world":[{"year":1880,"asOf":null,"core":7800000,"low":7663000,"high":null,"method":"revised","note":"DellaPergola's revised estimate. His 2001 regional table gave 7,663,000 for the same year.","sourceIds":["s1","s43"]},{"year":1900,"asOf":"1900-01-01","core":10600000,"low":null,"high":10728491,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The American Jewish Year Book of 1899-1900 added up country figures to 10,728,491, which DellaPergola lists as the original estimate (10,728,500).","sourceIds":["s1","s26"]},{"year":1910,"asOf":null,"core":12184000,"low":null,"high":12840641,"method":"interpolated","note":"Interpolated between the revised estimates for 1900 (10.6 million) and 1922 (14.4 million). The American Jewish Year Book of 1910-11 added up country figures to 12,840,641.","sourceIds":["s1","s27"]},{"year":1914,"asOf":null,"core":12882000,"low":12000000,"high":null,"method":"interpolated","note":"Interpolated between the revised estimates for 1900 and 1922. This is rough: growth was probably uneven, faster before 1914 and slower during the First World War and its aftermath. The American Jewish Year Book of 1913-14 gave a round 12 million, relying on Russia's 1897 census.","sourceIds":["s1","s28"]},{"year":1922,"asOf":"1922-01-01","core":14400000,"low":null,"high":15393800,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 15,393,800.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":1925,"asOf":null,"core":14750000,"low":null,"high":15581987,"method":"interpolated","note":"Interpolated between the revised estimates for 1922 (14.4 million) and 1939 (16.5 million). H. S. Linfield's table in the American Jewish Year Book of 1925-26 added up to 15,581,987.","sourceIds":["s1","s29"]},{"year":1933,"asOf":null,"core":15726000,"low":15144374,"high":null,"method":"interpolated","note":"Interpolated between the revised estimates for 1922 and 1939. Figures published at the time were lower: the American Jewish Year Book of 1933-34 estimated the world at about 15.2 million, with its country figures adding up to 15,144,374, many of them from censuses of the 1920s. The US Holocaust Memorial Museum gives about 15.3 million for 1933.","sourceIds":["s1","s30","s40"]},{"year":1939,"asOf":"1939-01-01","core":16500000,"low":16181328,"high":16633675,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate for the eve of the Second World War; world Jewry has not yet returned to this size. The American Jewish Year Book of 1939-40 added up to 16,181,328 (DellaPergola's 'original' 16,181,300). Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, drawing on DellaPergola, uses 16.6 million, and Shapiro and Sapir (American Jewish Year Book 1948-49) estimated 16,633,675 for the end of 1939.","sourceIds":["s1","s31","s41","s32"]},{"year":1945,"asOf":"1945-05-01","core":11000000,"low":null,"high":null,"method":"revised","note":"After the Holocaust, in which about 6 million Jews were murdered.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":1948,"asOf":"1948-05-15","core":11185000,"low":null,"high":11500000,"method":"published","note":"DellaPergola's figure for 15 May 1948, which fits between the revised 1945 and 1950 figures. His 2001 paper and Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics use a round 11.5 million for 1948. Shapiro and Sapir's 1948-49 Year Book count was 11,373,350.","sourceIds":["s42","s43","s41","s32"]},{"year":1950,"asOf":"1950-01-01","core":11297000,"low":null,"high":11303400,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 11,303,400.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":1955,"asOf":null,"core":11681000,"low":null,"high":11908443,"method":"interpolated","note":"Interpolated between the revised estimates for 1950 and 1960. The American Jewish Year Book of 1956 gave 11,908,443 for 1955.","sourceIds":["s1","s33"]},{"year":1960,"asOf":"1960-01-01","core":12079000,"low":null,"high":12792800,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 12,792,800.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":1965,"asOf":null,"core":12403000,"low":null,"high":13400000,"method":"interpolated","note":"Interpolated between the revised estimates for 1960 and 1970. The American Jewish Year Book of 1966 gave 13.4 million for the end of 1965.","sourceIds":["s1","s34"]},{"year":1970,"asOf":"1970-01-01","core":12735000,"low":null,"high":13950875,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The American Jewish Year Book of 1971 gave 13,950,875 for the end of 1970, including 2.62 million for the USSR, where the 1970 Soviet census counted about 2.15 million Jews.","sourceIds":["s1","s35"]},{"year":1975,"asOf":null,"core":12884000,"low":null,"high":14144390,"method":"interpolated","note":"Interpolated between the revised estimates for 1970 and 1980. The American Jewish Year Book of 1977 gave 14,144,390 for the end of 1975.","sourceIds":["s1","s36"]},{"year":1980,"asOf":"1980-01-01","core":13034000,"low":null,"high":14527100,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 14,527,100.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":1985,"asOf":null,"core":13068000,"low":12963300,"high":null,"method":"interpolated","note":"Interpolated between the revised estimates for 1980 and 1990. Schmelz and DellaPergola's estimate for the end of 1984 was 12,963,300.","sourceIds":["s1","s37"]},{"year":1990,"asOf":"1990-01-01","core":13103000,"low":12810300,"high":null,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 12,810,300.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":1995,"asOf":null,"core":13337000,"low":13059000,"high":null,"method":"interpolated","note":"Interpolated between the revised estimates for 1990 and 2000. DellaPergola's estimate at the time, for the end of 1995, was 13,059,000.","sourceIds":["s1","s38","s43"]},{"year":2000,"asOf":"2000-01-01","core":13575000,"low":13191500,"high":null,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 13,191,500; most of the change comes from raising the US figure.","sourceIds":["s1","s39"]},{"year":2005,"asOf":"2005-01-01","core":14035000,"low":13034100,"high":null,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 13,034,100.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2010,"asOf":"2010-01-01","core":14299000,"low":13428300,"high":null,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 13,428,300.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2015,"asOf":"2015-01-01","core":14830800,"low":14310500,"high":null,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 14,310,500.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2018,"asOf":null,"core":15158000,"low":14606500,"high":null,"method":"interpolated","note":"Interpolated between the revised estimates for 2015 and 2020. Before the recent upward revision of the US figure, DellaPergola put 1 January 2018 at 14,606,500.","sourceIds":["s1","s44"]},{"year":2020,"asOf":"2020-01-01","core":15380600,"low":14787200,"high":null,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 14,787,200.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2022,"asOf":"2022-01-01","core":15590400,"low":null,"high":null,"method":"revised","note":"Revised figure for 2022 as printed in the 2023 edition. The 2024 edition cut the 2023 figure by 33,200, mainly after Israel's 2022 census, so the 2022 figure may be revised down slightly too. The Jewish Agency described 2022 as 15.6 million.","sourceIds":["s45","s46","s1"]},{"year":2023,"asOf":"2023-01-01","core":15658000,"low":null,"high":15691200,"method":"revised","note":"Revised estimate. The originally published figure was 15,691,200.","sourceIds":["s1","s45"]},{"year":2024,"asOf":"2024-01-01","core":15736800,"low":null,"high":null,"method":"published","note":"Latest estimate in the 2024 edition. Israel 7,153,000; United States 6,300,000. Later editions may revise it.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"asOf":null,"core":15809000,"low":null,"high":null,"method":"published","note":"DellaPergola's 2025 estimate, as published by JPR. His annual series normally refers to 1 January (the 2024 edition is dated 1 January 2024); JPR gives no exact reference date, and The Jerusalem Post describes the figure only as 'as of 2025'. Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics reported the same total in round numbers in April 2026 (15.8 million; 7.2 million in Israel, 6.3 million in the US).","sourceIds":["s2","s3","s47","s48"]}],"byCountry":[{"country":"Russian Empire / USSR / former Soviet Union (total)","iso3":"SUN","note":"Historical total for the Russian Empire (1900) and the USSR (1933-1970), then the sum of all 15 former Soviet republics. Borders changed a great deal: the 1900 figure includes Congress Poland, Lithuania and Latvia, and Soviet borders moved west in 1939-40.","series":[{"year":1900,"population":5700000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Russian Empire as estimated in the 1899-1900 Year Book. The 1897 imperial census counted 5,215,805 Jews.","sourceIds":["s26","s28"]},{"year":1933,"population":2672398,"dataYear":1926,"basis":"contemporary","note":"USSR figure printed in the 1933-34 Year Book, based on the 1926 Soviet census. The US Holocaust Memorial Museum gives 2,525,000 for the European part of the USSR in 1933.","sourceIds":["s30","s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":3020000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Soviet Union at the end of 1939 as estimated by Shapiro and Sapir (1948-49), before the losses of the war.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1948,"population":2000000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Shapiro and Sapir's figure. DellaPergola's 2003 regional table gives about 2.2 million for 15 May 1948 (1.85 million for the European part of the former USSR and 350,000 for its Asian part), but its European figure also includes Turkey, which had roughly 80,000 Jews at the time.","sourceIds":["s32","s42"]},{"year":1970,"population":2151000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1970 Soviet census. The Year Book used a higher 2.62 million, doubting the census. DellaPergola's revised 1970 figures for the ten Soviet republics with 20,000 or more Jews add up to 2,118,700 (our sum), which is in line with the census.","sourceIds":["s35","s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":468100,"basis":"sum","note":"Sum of former Soviet republics in Europe (438,100) and Asia (30,000), 1 January 2000.","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":183100,"basis":"sum","note":"Sum of former Soviet republics in Europe including the Baltic states (170,000) and in Asia (13,100), 1 January 2024.","sourceIds":["s1"]}]},{"country":"Russia","iso3":"RUS","note":"Present-day borders. Before 1991 see the USSR total.","series":[{"year":1970,"population":807900,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":290000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Includes the Asian regions of Russia.","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":123000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":119800,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s10"]}]},{"country":"Ukraine","iso3":"UKR","note":"Present-day borders from 1970. The 1933 point is the Soviet Ukrainian republic of 1926, which excluded western regions then in Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakia, and also Crimea, which the Year Book lists separately (45,926 Jews).","series":[{"year":1933,"population":1574428,"dataYear":1926,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Soviet Ukraine, 1926 census, as printed in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1970,"population":777100,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":100000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":32000,"basis":"revised","note":"Accuracy grade D (speculative; base data from 2001).","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":30600,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s15"]}],"noteSourceIds":["s30"]},{"country":"Belarus","iso3":"BLR","note":"Present-day borders from 1970. The 1933 point is the Soviet Belarusian republic of 1926, which excluded western regions then in Poland.","series":[{"year":1933,"population":407059,"dataYear":1926,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Soviet Belarus ('White Russia'), 1926 census, as printed in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1970,"population":148000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":26600,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":5400,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":5000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s16"]}]},{"country":"Poland","iso3":"POL","note":"No 1900 figure: Polish lands were then divided among the Russian, Austro-Hungarian and German empires (see the Russian Empire total). 1933 and 1939 use interwar borders, which reached far into today's Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania; 1948 onward uses postwar borders.","noteSourceIds":["s26"],"series":[{"year":1933,"population":3000000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Rounded figure from the US Holocaust Memorial Museum (9.5% of the population). The 1939-40 Year Book lists 3,113,900 from the 1931 census.","sourceIds":["s40","s31"]},{"year":1939,"population":3250000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Shapiro and Sapir's estimate for the end of 1939. The table does not state borders; the size implies prewar Poland.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1948,"population":88000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":9000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":3500,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Accuracy grade D (speculative).","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":9600,"basis":"revised","note":"Base data from 2021 (census, survey and community records). The 2000 figure was graded D (speculative), so the two are not strictly comparable.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":9800,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s17"]}]},{"country":"United States","iso3":"USA","note":"The US census does not ask about religion, so all figures are estimates. The points for 1945, 1950 and 1970 onward (except the 2000 original noted below) use DellaPergola's revised series, based on Rosenwaike's work until 1975; that series raised earlier published figures from 1965 onward. The 1948 point is a contemporary estimate.","noteSourceIds":["s1"],"series":[{"year":1900,"population":1043800,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Estimate in the 1899-1900 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":4228029,"dataYear":1927,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Figure printed in the 1933-34 Year Book: the 1927 estimate from H. S. Linfield's study, published in 1929.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":4831180,"dataYear":1937,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Estimate for 1937 printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1945,"population":4360000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":1948,"population":5000000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Shapiro and Sapir's round figure. The later revised series (after Rosenwaike) is lower: 4,360,000 in 1945 and 4,680,000 in 1950.","sourceIds":["s32","s1"]},{"year":1950,"population":4680000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":1970,"population":5520000,"basis":"revised","note":"Revised. The 1971 Year Book repeated its 1968 estimate of 5,870,000.","sourceIds":["s1","s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":5975000,"basis":"revised","note":"Revised. Originally published as 5,700,000.","sourceIds":["s1","s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":6300000,"basis":"revised","note":"Core estimate. Pew Research Center's broader 'net Jewish population' for 2020 was 7.5 million.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":6305000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s4"]}]},{"country":"Germany","iso3":"DEU","note":"1900: German Empire (which then included Alsace-Lorraine and large areas now in Poland). 1933: borders of the time. 1939: Germany as listed by Shapiro and Sapir, who list Austria separately; they do not state borders. 1948: occupied Germany, including displaced persons. 1970 onward: present-day borders.","series":[{"year":1900,"population":567884,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":525000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":240000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Estimate for the end of 1939 (compare 525,000 in 1933).","sourceIds":["s32","s40"]},{"year":1948,"population":153000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Includes Jewish displaced persons.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":30000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":92000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":125000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":125700,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s9"]}]},{"country":"Austria","iso3":"AUT","note":"No 1900 figure for present-day Austria: the 1899-1900 Year Book gives only Austria-Hungary as a whole (1,860,106), a state that included Galicia, Bohemia and the Kingdom of Hungary. 1933 onward: roughly present-day borders.","noteSourceIds":["s26"],"series":[{"year":1933,"population":191000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Most lived in Vienna.","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":60000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Estimate for the end of 1939 (compare 191,000 in 1933).","sourceIds":["s32","s40"]},{"year":1948,"population":31000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Includes Jewish displaced persons.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":8000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":9000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":10300,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":10500,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s19"]}]},{"country":"Hungary","iso3":"HUN","note":"No 1900 figure for present-day Hungary; the pre-1920 Kingdom of Hungary was far larger (the 1910-11 Year Book listed 851,378 Jews there). 1933 onward: post-1920 borders.","noteSourceIds":["s27"],"series":[{"year":1933,"population":445000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":403000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Shapiro and Sapir's estimate for the end of 1939. The table does not state which borders it uses; Hungary's borders changed in 1938-41.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1948,"population":174000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":70000,"basis":"revised","note":"Revised. The 1971 Year Book used 80,000.","sourceIds":["s1","s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":52000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":45000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":44800,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s13"]}]},{"country":"Romania","iso3":"ROU","note":"1900: the pre-1918 kingdom. 1933-1939: interwar Greater Romania (including Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania). 1948 onward: postwar borders.","series":[{"year":1900,"population":300000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":756000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":850000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Estimate for the end of 1939.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1948,"population":380000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":70000,"basis":"revised","note":"Revised. The 1971 Year Book used 100,000.","sourceIds":["s1","s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":11500,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":8600,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":8500,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s18"]}]},{"country":"Czechoslovakia (Czechia and Slovakia)","iso3":"CSK","note":"Czechoslovakia existed from 1918 to 1992. For 2000 onward the figure is the sum of Czechia and Slovakia.","series":[{"year":1933,"population":357000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":360000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Estimate for the end of 1939. The table does not state borders; Czechoslovakia was broken up in 1938-39.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1948,"population":42000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":14000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":6100,"basis":"sum","note":"Czech Republic 2,800 plus Slovakia 3,300.","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":7000,"basis":"sum","note":"Czechia 3,500 plus Slovakia 3,500.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":7000,"basis":"sum","note":"Czechia 3,500 plus Slovakia 3,500.","sourceIds":["s2","s24","s25"]}]},{"country":"Lithuania","iso3":"LTU","note":"1933: interwar Lithuania, which did not include Vilnius (then in Poland). The end-1939 estimate repeats the same number and the source does not state borders. In 1900 and 1948 Lithuania was part of the Russian Empire / USSR and is counted there.","series":[{"year":1933,"population":155000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":155000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Estimate for the end of 1939.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":23600,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":4400,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":2100,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":2100,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s22"]}]},{"country":"Latvia","iso3":"LVA","note":"In 1900 and 1948 Latvia was part of the Russian Empire / USSR and is counted there.","series":[{"year":1933,"population":95600,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":95000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Estimate for the end of 1939.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":36700,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":8600,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":4100,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":4000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s21"]}]},{"country":"Netherlands","iso3":"NLD","note":"European Netherlands only.","series":[{"year":1900,"population":97324,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":156000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":150000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Estimate for the end of 1939.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1948,"population":28000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":30000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":26500,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":35000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":34900,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s14"]}]},{"country":"France","iso3":"FRA","note":"Metropolitan France. In 1900 Alsace-Lorraine belonged to Germany, and Algeria (then French) is listed separately.","series":[{"year":1900,"population":72000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":250000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":300000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Estimate for the end of 1939.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1948,"population":235000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":530000,"basis":"revised","note":"Revised. The 1971 Year Book used 550,000 and noted that immigration from North Africa had transformed French Jewry.","sourceIds":["s1","s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":521000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":438500,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":436000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s6"]}]},{"country":"United Kingdom","iso3":"GBR","note":"The 1900 figure covers Great Britain and all of Ireland.","series":[{"year":1900,"population":101189,"basis":"sum","note":"England and Wales 97,350, Scotland 2,060 and Ireland 1,779.","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":300000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":300000,"dataYear":1931,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Figure printed in the 1939-40 Year Book, dated 1931.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":345000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Listed as 'England'.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":390000,"basis":"revised","note":"Revised. The 1971 Year Book used 410,000.","sourceIds":["s1","s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":276000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":313000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":315000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s8"]}]},{"country":"Italy","iso3":"ITA","note":"Borders of the time.","series":[{"year":1900,"population":38000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":48000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"year":1939,"population":57425,"dataYear":1938,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1938 figure printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":53000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Includes Jewish displaced persons.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":32000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":29600,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":26800,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":26700,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s20"]}]},{"country":"Israel / Mandate Palestine","iso3":"ISR","note":"Ottoman Palestine (1900), British Mandate Palestine (1933-1948) and the State of Israel. DellaPergola's current figures for Israel include Jewish residents of East Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Golan Heights.","noteSourceIds":["s1"],"series":[{"year":1900,"population":50000,"basis":"derived","note":"Derived: DellaPergola estimates that 0.47% of world Jewry (10.6 million) lived in the Land of Israel in 1900, which is about 49,800; rounded.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":1933,"population":175006,"dataYear":1931,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Dated 1931 in the 1933-34 Year Book, which also summarizes the 1931 census of Palestine (174,610 Jews). It predates the fast immigration of the mid-1930s: the 1939-40 Year Book gives 399,807 for 1938.","sourceIds":["s30","s31"]},{"year":1939,"population":449000,"basis":"revised","note":"On the eve of the Second World War (Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, using DellaPergola's data).","sourceIds":["s41"]},{"year":1948,"population":650000,"basis":"revised","note":"On the eve of statehood (Central Bureau of Statistics). DellaPergola's 2003 regional table also gives 650,000 for 15 May 1948, and his 2024 text gives 630,000; the 1948-49 Year Book printed 750,000 for the end of September 1948.","sourceIds":["s41","s42","s1","s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":2581000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":4882000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":7153000,"basis":"revised","note":"The 2024 edition cut its 2023 figure for Israel by 40,500 after Israel's 2022 census.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":7212900,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s5"]}]},{"country":"Argentina","iso3":"ARG","series":[{"year":1900,"population":6735,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":200000,"dataYear":1924,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Dated 1924 in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":260000,"dataYear":1935,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1935 estimate printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":360000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":282000,"basis":"revised","note":"Revised. The 1971 Year Book used 500,000.","sourceIds":["s1","s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":200000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":170000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":168000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Rounded figure from the Central Bureau of Statistics release as reported by Ynetnews.","sourceIds":["s47"]}]},{"country":"Canada","iso3":"CAN","series":[{"year":1900,"population":6414,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Listed as 'Canada and British Columbia'.","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":155606,"dataYear":1931,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1931 census, from the regional table of the 1933-34 Year Book (its alphabetical list printed an older 126,196). The 1939-40 Year Book gives 155,614 from the same census.","sourceIds":["s30","s31"]},{"year":1939,"population":155614,"dataYear":1931,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1931 census, as printed in the 1939-40 Year Book (still the latest count in 1939).","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":180000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":286000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":362000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":400000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":407400,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s7"]}]},{"country":"South Africa","iso3":"ZAF","note":"No 1900 figure: the area was then several separate colonies and republics, not all listed.","noteSourceIds":["s26"],"series":[{"year":1933,"population":71816,"dataYear":1926,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Figure dated 1926 in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":95000,"dataYear":1936,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1936 census, as printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":100000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":118000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":80000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":49500,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":49000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s12"]}]},{"country":"Morocco","iso3":"MAR","note":"1933 and 1939 add the French zone, the Spanish zone and Tangier, which were listed separately.","series":[{"year":1900,"population":150000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":143000,"dataYear":1931,"basis":"sum","note":"French zone 120,000 (1931), Spanish zone 15,000 (1929) and Tangier 8,000 (1931).","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":181230,"dataYear":1936,"basis":"sum","note":"French zone 161,312 (1936 census), Spanish zone 12,918 and Tangier 7,000.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":286000,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Including Tangier.","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":45000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":5800,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":2100,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]}]},{"country":"Algeria","iso3":"DZA","note":"Under French rule until 1962. Fewer than 100 core Jews today (not listed separately).","noteSourceIds":["s1"],"series":[{"year":1900,"population":43500,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":100000,"dataYear":1926,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Dated 1926 in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":110127,"dataYear":1931,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1931 figure printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":130000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":1500,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s35"]}]},{"country":"Tunisia","iso3":"TUN","series":[{"year":1900,"population":45000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":65000,"dataYear":1926,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Dated 1926 in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":59485,"dataYear":1936,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1936 figure printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":70000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":10000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":1500,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":1000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]}]},{"country":"Iraq","iso3":"IRQ","note":"Part of the Ottoman Empire in 1900 (no separate figure). Fewer than 100 core Jews today (not listed separately).","noteSourceIds":["s26","s1"],"series":[{"year":1933,"population":87488,"dataYear":1920,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1920 census figure, as printed in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":90970,"dataYear":1935,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1935 figure printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":90000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":2500,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":100,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]}]},{"country":"Iran","iso3":"IRN","note":"Listed as Persia before 1935.","series":[{"year":1900,"population":25000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":40000,"dataYear":1929,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Dated 1929 in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":40000,"dataYear":1935,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1935 figure printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":50000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":72000,"basis":"revised","note":"Revised. The 1971 Year Book used 80,000.","sourceIds":["s1","s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":12000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":9000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]}]},{"country":"Egypt","iso3":"EGY","series":[{"year":1900,"population":25200,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s26"]},{"year":1933,"population":63550,"dataYear":1927,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1927 census figure, as printed in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30","s31"]},{"year":1939,"population":72550,"dataYear":1934,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Official estimate for 1934, printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":75000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":1000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":200,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":100,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]}]},{"country":"Yemen","iso3":"YEM","note":"No separate figure before 1948 (earlier Year Books list 'Arabia' as a whole). Aden, then British, is listed separately in 1948 (8,700). Fewer than 100 core Jews today (not listed separately).","noteSourceIds":["s30","s32","s1"],"series":[{"year":1948,"population":45000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":500,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":200,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]}]},{"country":"Turkey","iso3":"TUR","note":"No 1900 figure for present-day Turkey: the 1899-1900 Year Book gives only the Ottoman Empire as a whole (350,000), which then included Palestine, Iraq and other lands. From 1933 the figure covers European and Asian Turkey.","noteSourceIds":["s26"],"series":[{"year":1933,"population":81872,"dataYear":1927,"basis":"sum","note":"European Turkey 55,592 plus Asian Turkey 26,280 (1927 census figures).","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":81872,"dataYear":1927,"basis":"sum","note":"European Turkey 55,592 plus Asian Turkey 26,280 (1927 census figures), as repeated in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":80000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":39000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":19000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":15000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":14800,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s23"]}]},{"country":"Brazil","iso3":"BRA","note":"Not listed in the 1899-1900 Year Book.","noteSourceIds":["s26"],"series":[{"year":1933,"population":30000,"dataYear":1927,"basis":"contemporary","note":"Dated 1927 in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":40000,"dataYear":1933,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1933 estimate printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":110750,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":90000,"basis":"revised","note":"Revised. The 1971 Year Book used 150,000.","sourceIds":["s1","s35"]},{"year":2000,"population":98000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":90300,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]}]},{"country":"Australia","iso3":"AUS","note":"No separate 1900 figure (the 1899-1900 Year Book gives 15,268 for 'Australasia', including New Zealand).","noteSourceIds":["s26"],"series":[{"year":1933,"population":21615,"dataYear":1921,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1921 census figure, as printed in the 1933-34 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"year":1939,"population":23553,"dataYear":1933,"basis":"contemporary","note":"1933 census, as printed in the 1939-40 Year Book.","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"year":1948,"population":37000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"year":1970,"population":65000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2000,"population":97000,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"year":2024,"population":117000,"basis":"revised","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"year":2025,"population":117100,"basis":"contemporary","sourceIds":["s2","s11"]}]}],"sources":[{"id":"s1","title":"World Jewish Population, 2024 (Sergio DellaPergola; chapter 8 of American Jewish Year Book 2024, ed. A. Dashefsky and I. Sheskin) - full text","publisher":"Springer (American Jewish Year Book); PDF hosted by Israel Central Bureau of Statistics","url":"https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/Documents/World%20DellaPergola%202024%20complete.pdf","year":2025},{"id":"s2","title":"Countries: How many Jews live around the world? (index page; states its source as DellaPergola, 'World Jewish Population, 2025', American Jewish Year Book 2026)","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries","year":2026},{"id":"s3","title":"How many Jews live in the World?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-world","year":2026},{"id":"s4","title":"How many Jews live in the United States","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-united-states","year":2026},{"id":"s5","title":"Israel (How many Jews live in Israel?)","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-israel","year":2026},{"id":"s6","title":"How many Jews live in France?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-france","year":2026},{"id":"s7","title":"Canada (How many Jews live in Canada?)","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-canada","year":2026},{"id":"s8","title":"How many Jews live in United Kingdom?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-united-kingdom","year":2026},{"id":"s9","title":"How many Jews live in Germany?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-germany","year":2026},{"id":"s10","title":"How many Jews live in Russia?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-russia","year":2026},{"id":"s11","title":"Australia (How many Jews live in Australia?)","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-australia","year":2026},{"id":"s12","title":"How many Jews live in South Africa?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-south-africa","year":2026},{"id":"s13","title":"How many Jews live in Hungary?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-hungary","year":2026},{"id":"s14","title":"How many Jews live in The Netherlands?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-the-netherlands","year":2026},{"id":"s15","title":"How many Jews live in Ukraine?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-ukraine","year":2026},{"id":"s16","title":"How many Jews live in Belarus?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-belarus","year":2026},{"id":"s17","title":"How many Jews live in Poland?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-poland","year":2026},{"id":"s18","title":"How many Jews live in Romania?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-romania","year":2026},{"id":"s19","title":"How many Jews live in Austria","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-austria","year":2026},{"id":"s20","title":"How many Jews live in Italy?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-italy","year":2026},{"id":"s21","title":"How many Jews live in Latvia?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-latvia","year":2026},{"id":"s22","title":"How many Jews live in Lithuania?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-lithuania","year":2026},{"id":"s23","title":"How many Jews live in Turkey?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-turkey","year":2026},{"id":"s24","title":"How many Jews live in Czechia?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-czechia","year":2026},{"id":"s25","title":"How many Jews live in Slovakia?","publisher":"Institute for Jewish Policy Research (JPR)","url":"https://www.jpr.org.uk/countries/how-many-jews-in-slovakia","year":2026},{"id":"s26","title":"Jewish Statistics (American Jewish Year Book vol. 1, 1899-1900; file 1899_1900_7_Statistics.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/2178","year":1899},{"id":"s27","title":"Jewish Statistics / Assorted Statistics (American Jewish Year Book vol. 12, 1910-1911; file 1910_1911_7_Statistics.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/2263","year":1910},{"id":"s28","title":"Statistics of Jews (American Jewish Year Book vol. 15, 1913-1914; file 1913_1914_8_Statistics.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/2292","year":1913},{"id":"s29","title":"Statistics of Jews, by H. S. Linfield (American Jewish Year Book vol. 27, 1925-1926; file 1925_1926_7_Statistics.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/2399","year":1925},{"id":"s30","title":"Statistics of Jews (American Jewish Year Book vol. 35, 1933-1934; file 1933_1934_7_Statistics.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/2474","year":1933},{"id":"s31","title":"Statistics of Jews (American Jewish Year Book vol. 41, 1939-1940; file 1939_1940_8_Statistics.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/2530","year":1939},{"id":"s32","title":"Jewish Population of the World, by Leon Shapiro and Boris Sapir (in Statistics of Jews, American Jewish Year Book vol. 50, 1948-1949; file 1948_1949_18_Statistics.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/2662","year":1948},{"id":"s33","title":"World Jewish Population, by Leon Shapiro (American Jewish Year Book vol. 57, 1956; file 1956_7_WJP.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/2797","year":1956},{"id":"s34","title":"World Jewish Population, by Leon Shapiro (American Jewish Year Book vol. 67, 1966; file 1966_15_WJP.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/2999","year":1966},{"id":"s35","title":"World Jewish Population, by Leon Shapiro (American Jewish Year Book vol. 72, 1971; file 1971_14_WJP.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/3088","year":1971},{"id":"s36","title":"World Jewish Population, by Leon Shapiro (American Jewish Year Book vol. 77, 1977; file 1977_14_WJP.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/3180","year":1977},{"id":"s37","title":"World Jewish Population, 1984, by U. O. Schmelz and Sergio DellaPergola (American Jewish Year Book vol. 86, 1986; file 1986_12_WJP.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/3333","year":1986},{"id":"s38","title":"World Jewish Population, 1995, by Sergio DellaPergola (American Jewish Year Book vol. 97, 1997; file 1997_14_WJP.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/3513","year":1997},{"id":"s39","title":"World Jewish Population, 2000, by Sergio DellaPergola (American Jewish Year Book vol. 100, 2000; file 2000_13_WJP.pdf)","publisher":"American Jewish Committee Archives (American Jewish Year Book)","url":"https://ajcarchives.org/Portal/Yearbooks/en-US/RecordView/Index/3553","year":2000},{"id":"s40","title":"Jewish Population of Europe in 1933: Population Data by Country (last edited 18 November 2024)","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jewish-population-of-europe-in-1933-population-data-by-country","year":2024},{"id":"s41","title":"On the Occasion of Holocaust Day, 2024: Jews in Israel and Throughout the World (Media Release 132/2024, May 2, 2024)","publisher":"Israel Central Bureau of Statistics","url":"https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/doclib/2024/132/11_24_132e.pdf","year":2024},{"id":"s42","title":"Review of Relevant Demographic Information on World Jewry (final report to the International Commission on Holocaust Era Insurance Claims), by Sergio DellaPergola","publisher":"The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, A. Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry; PDF hosted by the Claims Conference","url":"https://www.claimscon.org/forms/allocations/Review_Della%20Pergola%20ICHEIC_.pdf","year":2003},{"id":"s43","title":"Some Fundamentals of Jewish Demographic History, by Sergio DellaPergola (in Papers in Jewish Demography 1997, ed. S. DellaPergola and J. Even)","publisher":"The Hebrew University of Jerusalem; PDF hosted by the Berman Jewish Policy Archive","url":"https://www.bjpa.org/content/upload/bjpa/dell/DellaPergola%20Some%20Fundamentals.pdf","year":2001},{"id":"s44","title":"World Jewish Population, 2019 (Current Jewish Population Reports no. 26, reprinted from American Jewish Year Book 2019), by Sergio DellaPergola","publisher":"Berman Jewish DataBank","url":"https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2019_World_Jewish_Population_(AJYB,_DellaPergola)_DataBank_Final.pdf","year":2019},{"id":"s45","title":"2023 World Jewish Population (DellaPergola, AJYB) - abstract and key findings","publisher":"Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), from the Berman Jewish DataBank","url":"https://www.thearda.com/data-archive/religion-resource-single-item?resourceInternalName=2023_WJP","year":null},{"id":"s46","title":"Jewish Population Rises to 15.7 Million Worldwide","publisher":"The Jewish Agency for Israel","url":"https://www.jewishagency.org/jewish-population-rises-to-15-7-million-worldwide-in-2023/","year":2023},{"id":"s47","title":"Global Jewish population at 15.8 million, still below pre-Holocaust levels, new data shows","publisher":"Ynetnews (reporting Israel Central Bureau of Statistics data released before Holocaust Remembrance Day 2026)","url":"https://www.ynetnews.com/jewish-world/article/ryw2ygkhzg","year":2026},{"id":"s48","title":"Global Jewish population is 15.8 m., almost half live in Israel, CBS reveals","publisher":"The Jerusalem Post","url":"https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/article-892865","year":2026},{"id":"s49","title":"World Jewish Population, 2020, by Sergio DellaPergola (American Jewish Year Book 2020, vol. 120) - Berman Jewish DataBank reprint","publisher":"Berman Jewish DataBank","url":"https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2020_World_Jewish_Population_(AJYB_DellaPergola)_FinalDB.pdf","year":2020}],"verification":{"status":"corrected","checkedAt":"2026-09-24","corrections":["definitions.core: the core concept was not 'developed by' DellaPergola; his 2024 chapter credits Kosmin et al. (1991). Reworded, and tightened the wording on 'another religion' (the source says another monotheistic religion) and on people with Jewish parents.","definitions.enlarged: 2024 population with a Jewish parent is 18,755,661 in the chapter text and country table (Table 8.3 alone prints 18,755,611); now uses 18,755,661 and notes the discrepancy.","definitions.note: the example for older Year Book counts (14.1 million for 1975) was compared with country figures that exist only for 1970; replaced with the documented 1970 comparison (13.95M vs 12.7M; USSR, US and Argentina differences). Added the 2020 US revision (5.70M to 6.28M) and its source (s49) to support 'mainly because the US figure was raised'.","world 1933: removed the unsupported claim that the US Holocaust Memorial Museum's 15.3 million is 'based on the Year Book' (the museum page gives no source); added that the 1933-34 Year Book's own rounded estimate was 15.2 million (its country sum is 15,144,374).","world 1939: 'high' was 16,600,000 (CBS round figure), but Shapiro and Sapir's 1948-49 Year Book gives 16,633,675 for the end of 1939; high corrected to 16,633,675 and s32 added.","world 2025: the note said press reports give no date; The Jerusalem Post says 'as of 2025'. Reworded.","USSR 1948 note: DellaPergola's 2003 regional figure (1.85M European FSU) includes Turkey per the table's own footnote; the note presented it as a Soviet-only figure. Caveat added.","USSR 1970 note: the claim that DellaPergola's 1971 regional figures 'match the census' relied on a table whose European total also includes Turkey. Replaced with our sum of his revised 1970 republic figures (2,118,700 for the ten largest), sourced to s1.","Ukraine note: the 1926 Soviet Ukraine figure also excluded Crimea (listed separately in the 1933-34 Year Book with 45,926 Jews); added.","United States note: said the file uses the revised series 'from 1945', but the 1948 point is Shapiro and Sapir's contemporary 5,000,000; clarified. 1970 note: the 1971 Year Book's 5,870,000 was its repeated 1968 estimate.","Germany note: '1939: Old Reich without Austria' was not stated by the source; reworded to say only that Austria is listed separately and borders are not stated.","Lithuania note: no longer asserts interwar borders for the end-1939 figure, which the source does not specify.","Israel note: 'from 1970 the core figure includes East Jerusalem, West Bank, Golan' had no source for 1970; restated as applying to DellaPergola's current figures. 1948 note: added DellaPergola 2003 (650,000 on 15 May 1948) and the date of the Year Book's 750,000 (end of September 1948).","South Africa 1933: the Year Book dates the figure 1926 but does not call it a census count; note softened.","Canada: added the missing 1939 benchmark (155,614, 1931 census, 1939-40 Year Book).","Turkey: added the missing 1939 benchmark (81,872 = 55,592 + 26,280, 1927 census figures in the 1939-40 Year Book).","Sources: s40 year set to 2024 (page last edited 18 Nov 2024); added s49 (DellaPergola, World Jewish Population 2020) to document the original 2020 US figure of 5,700,000."],"unresolved":["2025 country figures could not be found for Brazil, Morocco, Tunisia, Iran and Egypt (JPR publishes 2025 country pages only for European countries, the US, Canada, Israel, Australia and South Africa), so those series end in 2024; the former-USSR total also ends in 2024 because no 2025 figure for the Asian republics was found.","The exact reference date of DellaPergola's 2025 world estimate (15,809,000) is not stated by JPR or the press; by the series convention it is probably 1 January 2025, but this is not confirmed.","Interpolated world values (1910, 1914, 1925, 1933, 1955, 1965, 1975, 1985, 1995, 2018) are our geometric interpolations between revised anchor years, not published estimates; the 1914 value in particular ignores the uneven effect of the First World War.","Pre-1950 country figures come from contemporary Year Book tables and the US Holocaust Memorial Museum under borders of the time, with data years that often differ from the benchmark year (see dataYear); they do not sum to the revised world totals.","The 2022 world figure (15,590,400) is from the 2023 edition and predates the 2024 edition's downward revision for Israel; its current revised value was not found."]}},"timeline":{"meta":{"title":"Conditions facing world Jewry, 1881-2025","description":"Eras and dated events used to show what Jews faced at the time of each Nobel Prize.","compiled":"2026-09-24","conventions":["deaths and displaced are {low, high} ranges taken from the cited sources; when a source gives only a floor (for example 'more than 400'), low and high are both set to that floor and the summary says 'at least' or 'more than'.","For pogroms and massacres, deaths count Jewish victims where sources separate them; for terror attacks on Jewish or Israeli targets, deaths count all people killed by the attackers, excluding the attackers themselves; for hostage-takings ended by a rescue raid, deaths count hostages killed.","Wars and armed uprisings carry deaths: null; their human cost is described in the summary.","Old Style (Julian) Russian dates are converted to the Gregorian calendar where the source gives both.","Wikipedia articles are cited where no more authoritative openly accessible source was found; their figures were checked against the article text on 2026-09-24."]},"eras":[{"id":"1881-1913","from":1881,"to":1913,"title":"Pogroms, legal barriers and the great migration","summary":"At the start of this era the Russian Empire held the world's largest Jewish community; its 1897 census counted about 5.2 million Jews. Most were confined to the Pale of Settlement. After Tsar Alexander II was assassinated in 1881, waves of pogroms swept the southwest. Deaths were fewer than often assumed, but the destruction and fear were immense, and the government followed with new restrictions: the May Laws of 1882, quotas on Jewish students from 1887 and the expulsion of about 20,000 Jews from Moscow in 1891. Violence grew worse after 1900. The Kishinev pogrom of 1903 shocked the world, and after the October Manifesto of 1905 pogroms hit about 660 towns. Old accusations returned in modern courtrooms, in blood-libel trials in Hungary, Bohemia and Kiev, while in France the Dreyfus Affair showed how deep antisemitism ran in a republic where Jews were equal citizens. Romania denied citizenship to nearly all its Jews. Jews responded by organizing, through self-defense groups, socialism and Zionism, and above all by leaving. Nearly 3 million left the Russian Empire between the 1870s and 1917, and more than 2 million Eastern European Jews reached the United States between 1881 and 1914.","keyFacts":["The 1897 Russian census counted about 5.2 million Jews, a little over 4% of the empire's population.","From 1887, Russian quotas capped Jewish students in secondary schools and universities, commonly given as 10% inside the Pale, 5% outside and 3% in Moscow and St Petersburg.","After the October Manifesto of 1905, pogroms broke out in about 660 towns; more than 400 Jews were killed in Odessa alone.","More than 2 million Eastern European Jews emigrated to the United States between 1881 and 1914.","Romania naturalized only 529 Jews between 1880 and 1913."],"regions":[{"region":"Russian Empire","summary":"Home to the world's largest Jewish population, mostly confined to the Pale of Settlement. Jews faced residence limits, the 1882 May Laws, education quotas from 1887, expulsions such as Moscow's in 1891, pogrom waves in 1881–82 and 1903–06, and the Beilis blood-libel trial of 1911–13."},{"region":"Austria-Hungary","summary":"Jews had legal equality, but political antisemitism grew. Blood-libel trials took place at Tiszaeszlár (1882–83) and Polná (1899–1900), and in 1897 Vienna gained a mayor, Karl Lueger, who led the antisemitic Christian Social Party."},{"region":"Romania","summary":"Despite the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania kept almost all native Jews from citizenship. Poverty and discrimination drove heavy emigration, starting with the fusgeyers who left on foot in 1900; almost 70,000 had gone by 1914."},{"region":"Western Europe and the United States","summary":"Jews were citizens in France, Britain and the United States, the main destinations for emigrants, yet the Dreyfus Affair (1894–1906) exposed French antisemitism, Britain's 1905 Aliens Act aimed largely at Jewish immigrants, and in the US Leo Frank was lynched in 1915."},{"region":"North Africa","summary":"In Morocco, about 42 Jews were killed when mutinous troops and rioters attacked the Jewish quarter of Fez in 1912, a disaster the community remembered as the Tritl."}],"sourceIds":["s1","s2","s3","s4","s5","s6","s7","s8","s9","s10","s11","s12","s13","s14","s15","s16","s17","s18","s19"]},{"id":"1914-1932","from":1914,"to":1932,"title":"War, revolution and new barriers","summary":"World War I was fought across the heart of Jewish Eastern Europe. Suspecting Jews of disloyalty, the Russian army took hostages and in 1915 expelled more than half a million Jews from front-line areas. The 1917 revolution abolished the Pale of Settlement and every anti-Jewish law in Russia, but the civil war that followed brought the worst anti-Jewish violence before the Holocaust: at least 50,000 Jews were killed in pogroms in Ukraine, and some historians estimate far more. Post-war minority treaties forced Romania to grant its Jews civil rights. Yet Hungary's numerus clausus of 1920, the first anti-Jewish law in post-war Europe, capped Jewish university students at 6%, and nationalist students in Romania and Poland campaigned for similar limits. In the United States, the immigration laws of 1921 and 1924 ended mass Jewish immigration, and Harvard and other universities moved to cap Jewish admissions. In Germany the Jewish foreign minister Walther Rathenau was assassinated in 1922, and the Nazi Party broke through in the 1930 election. In Palestine, where Britain had promised a Jewish national home, clashes culminated in the 1929 riots. In the Soviet Union, Jews gained access to new professions while Jewish religious and Zionist life was suppressed.","keyFacts":["More than half a million Jews were expelled from front-line areas by the Russian army between March and September 1915.","The minimum credible estimate for Jews killed in the civil-war pogroms of 1918–1921 is 50,000; other estimates range from 100,000 to 200,000.","Hungary's 1920 numerus clausus capped Jewish students at 6%, down from about 15% in the 1910s.","Harvard's Jewish enrollment rose from 6% to 22% between 1908 and 1922, prompting its president to call for limits.","The US Immigration Act of 1924 capped quota immigration at 164,667 people a year."],"regions":[{"region":"Ukraine and the former Russian Empire","summary":"Wartime expulsions were followed by the civil-war pogroms of 1918–21, carried out by Ukrainian nationalist troops, White armies, warlords and some Red Army units, including the Proskurov massacre of 1919."},{"region":"Soviet Union","summary":"Jews won legal equality in 1917 and moved into new occupations and higher education, but during the 1920s the regime closed most synagogues and Jewish schools, banned religious education and suppressed Zionism. Birobidzhan was designated a Jewish region in 1928."},{"region":"Poland","summary":"Independence brought pogroms in Lwów (1918) and the execution of 35 Jews in Pinsk (1919). Right-wing students pressed for a return of admission quotas at universities."},{"region":"Hungary and Romania","summary":"Hungary saw anti-Jewish atrocities during the White Terror of 1919–20 and passed its numerus clausus in 1920. Romania granted Jews civil rights in 1919 and 1923, but A. C. Cuza's movement campaigned for university quotas."},{"region":"United States","summary":"The 1921 and 1924 immigration acts sharply limited arrivals from Eastern Europe, and private universities and medical schools introduced quotas on Jewish students that lasted from the late 1910s into the 1950s."},{"region":"Mandatory Palestine","summary":"Britain's 1917 Balfour Declaration backed a Jewish national home. Riots in 1920, 1921 and 1929 killed Jews and Arabs; in 1929, 133 Jews were killed, 67 of them in Hebron."}],"sourceIds":["s20","s3","s4","s21","s22","s23","s24","s16","s25","s26","s27","s28","s29","s30","s31","s17","s32","s33","s34","s35","s36","s37","s38","s39","s40","s41","s42","s43","s6"]},{"id":"1933-1945","from":1933,"to":1945,"title":"Nazi persecution and the Holocaust","summary":"Within months of Hitler's appointment as chancellor in January 1933, the Nazi state boycotted Jewish businesses, ordered Jewish civil servants out of their posts and limited new Jewish students to 1.5%. The purge hit science directly: about one in five German university teachers was eventually expelled, some 80% on antisemitic grounds, and many leading scientists fled abroad. The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 stripped Jews of citizenship. In 1938 Austria's Jews came under Nazi rule, Italy and Hungary passed their own anti-Jewish laws, and the Kristallnacht pogrom destroyed more than 1,400 synagogues. Escape was hard: at the Evian Conference almost no country offered to take more refugees, US quotas stayed unchanged and Britain limited immigration to Palestine. After Germany invaded Poland in 1939, Jews were forced into ghettos. From 1941, German units and their allies and collaborators shot about 2 million Jews, and about 2.7 million more were murdered in killing centers such as Auschwitz and Treblinka. Six million Jews, nearly two of every three in Europe, were murdered. Pogroms also struck Jews in Romania and in Baghdad. Rescue was rare but real, as in Denmark in 1943.","keyFacts":["About 19.5% of German university teaching staff were dismissed during the Nazi era, around 80% of them on antisemitic grounds.","By September 1939 about 282,000 Jews had left Germany and 117,000 had left annexed Austria.","Six million Jews were murdered in the Holocaust: about 2.7 million at killing centers and about 2 million in mass shootings.","About one million Jews were murdered at Auschwitz alone.","Almost 3 million Polish Jews, close to 90% of the pre-war community, perished."],"regions":[{"region":"Germany and Austria","summary":"Jews were pushed out of the civil service, universities and professions from 1933, stripped of citizenship in 1935 and attacked in the Kristallnacht pogrom of 1938. From October 1941 to October 1942, about 183,000 German, Austrian and Czech Jews were deported east."},{"region":"Poland","summary":"Europe's largest Jewish community, about 3.1 million in 1931, was confined to ghettos such as Warsaw's and destroyed in the Operation Reinhard killing centers and at Auschwitz; almost 3 million Polish Jews perished."},{"region":"Soviet Union and the Baltic states","summary":"After June 1941, German units and local collaborators shot Jews in mass killings such as Babyn Yar, Ponary and Rumbula; at least 1.5 million Jews died in shootings and gas vans on Soviet territory."},{"region":"Romania and Hungary","summary":"Romanian forces carried out the Iași and Odesa massacres and deportations to Transnistria. Hungary passed anti-Jewish laws from 1938; after the German occupation in 1944, about 437,000 Hungarian Jews were deported, mostly to Auschwitz."},{"region":"Western and Southern Europe","summary":"Italy's 1938 racial laws expelled Jews from schools and universities. About 77,000 Jews in France, some 107,000 deported from the Netherlands and more than 45,000 from Salonika were among the victims; most of Denmark's Jews were rescued by being ferried to Sweden."},{"region":"Middle East and North Africa","summary":"Vichy France stripped Algerian Jews of citizenship in 1940. The Farhud in Baghdad (1941) killed 128 to 180 Jews, and a pogrom in Tripoli in November 1945 killed more than 140."}],"sourceIds":["s34","s44","s45","s46","s47","s48","s49","s50","s51","s25","s52","s53","s31","s54","s55","s56","s28","s57","s58","s59","s60","s61","s62","s63","s64","s65","s66","s67","s68","s69","s70","s71","s72","s73","s74","s75","s76","s77","s78","s79"]},{"id":"1946-1967","from":1946,"to":1967,"title":"Aftermath, a new state and new expulsions","summary":"Most survivors felt there was no future for Jews in Europe. In Kielce, Poland, a mob killed 42 Jews in 1946, and about 250,000 survivors fled Eastern Europe, many into displaced-persons camps in Germany, Austria and Italy. Israel was founded in May 1948 and immediately fought a war in which it lost about 1% of its population; around 750,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled during the same conflict. Israel took in about 700,000 Jews by the end of 1951. Across the Arab and wider Muslim world, riots in Aden, Aleppo and Oujda, loss of citizenship, frozen assets and expulsions drove out about 900,000 Jews over the following decades, leaving only small remnants of most communities. Most went to Israel and many to France. In the Soviet bloc, Stalin's anti-cosmopolitan campaign targeted Jews, leading Jewish cultural figures were executed in 1952, the Doctors' Plot of 1953 accused Jewish physicians of murder plots, and Czechoslovakia's Slánský trial stressed the defendants' Jewish origins. Soviet universities quietly discriminated against Jewish applicants for decades. The 1961 Eichmann trial made survivors' testimony widely known.","keyFacts":["About 250,000 Jewish displaced persons lived in camps in Germany, Austria and Italy at the end of 1946.","Israel lost 6,373 people, about 1% of its population, in the 1948 war.","About 900,000 Jews migrated, fled or were expelled from Muslim-majority countries in the 20th century, mostly after 1948.","About 25,000 Egyptian Jews, nearly half the community, left after the 1956 Suez crisis.","In 1962, 54% of those sentenced to death for economic crimes in the USSR were Jews, who were about 1% of the population."],"regions":[{"region":"Poland and Eastern Europe","summary":"Postwar violence such as the Kielce pogrom of 1946 drove survivors west in the Brihah. Communist regimes later staged trials and campaigns with antisemitic overtones, such as Czechoslovakia's Slánský trial of 1952."},{"region":"Soviet Union","summary":"The anti-cosmopolitan campaign from 1948, the 1952 executions of Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee members, the Doctors' Plot of 1953 and the economic-crimes trials of the early 1960s targeted Jews, and universities discriminated against Jewish applicants."},{"region":"Israel","summary":"Founded in 1948, Israel fought wars in 1948 and 1967 and absorbed Holocaust survivors and Jews from Arab and Muslim countries, doubling its Jewish population by the end of 1951."},{"region":"Arab and Muslim countries","summary":"Riots, denaturalization, asset freezes and expulsions emptied most Jewish communities: Yemen (1949–50), Iraq (1950–52), Egypt (1956), Morocco and Algeria in the early 1960s, and Libya after 1967."}],"sourceIds":["s80","s81","s82","s83","s84","s85","s86","s87","s88","s89","s90","s91","s73","s92","s93","s38","s94","s95","s96","s97","s32","s98","s99","s100"]},{"id":"1968-1991","from":1968,"to":1991,"title":"Refuseniks, purges and terror","summary":"In 1968 Poland's Communist government launched an \"anti-Zionist\" campaign that purged Jews from public jobs, including school and university teaching, and pushed at least 13,000 people of Jewish origin to emigrate. In the Soviet Union, Jews who applied to leave, often scientists and other professionals, were frequently refused for years on the grounds that they knew state secrets, and many lost their jobs and homes. The 1970 Leningrad trial and the 1972 \"diploma tax\", which charged emigrants for their education, drew worldwide protest, and the US Jackson-Vanik amendment tied trade to free emigration. More than 290,000 Jews and relatives left between 1970 and 1989, and about 380,000 more between late 1989 and 1991 as the Soviet system collapsed. Terrorism reached Jews and Israelis far from Israel, from the killing of 11 Israelis at the 1972 Munich Olympics to attacks on synagogues and Jewish sites in Paris, Vienna, Rome and Istanbul. After Iran's 1979 revolution, most of its 80,000 Jews left. Israel airlifted Ethiopian Jews in 1984–85 and 1991. The UN General Assembly declared Zionism a form of racism in 1975 and revoked the resolution in 1991.","keyFacts":["At least 13,000 Polish citizens of Jewish origin emigrated in 1968–1972; one estimate is 25,000.","More than 290,000 Soviet Jews and their relatives emigrated between 1970 and 1989, and about 380,000 between late 1989 and the end of 1991.","Refuseniks were often denied exit for years, most commonly on the grounds that they had access to state secrets.","Operation Solomon flew 14,325 Ethiopian Jews to Israel in 36 hours in 1991."],"regions":[{"region":"Soviet Union","summary":"Emigration was tightly restricted: refuseniks lost jobs and faced KGB harassment, activists such as Natan Sharansky were imprisoned, and a 1972 diploma tax targeted educated emigrants, until the system collapsed after 1989."},{"region":"Poland","summary":"The 1968 campaign against \"Zionists\" purged Jews from public life and universities and drove out most of the remaining community."},{"region":"Western Europe","summary":"Palestinian and other militant groups attacked Jewish and Israeli targets, including the Munich Olympics (1972), the Rue Copernic synagogue (1980), the Vienna synagogue (1981), and the Jo Goldenberg restaurant and Rome's Great Synagogue (1982)."},{"region":"Middle East and Africa","summary":"Most of Iran's Jews left after 1979. Istanbul's Neve Shalom synagogue was attacked in 1986. Israel rescued Ethiopian Jews in Operations Moses and Solomon."}],"sourceIds":["s57","s101","s102","s38","s103","s104","s105","s106","s107","s108","s109","s110","s111","s112","s113","s114","s115"]},{"id":"1992-2022","from":1992,"to":2022,"title":"Open borders and a rising tide of attacks","summary":"With the Soviet Union gone, about 1 million emigrants from the former USSR eventually settled in Israel and 300,000 had reached the United States by 2000, and Syria let its last Jews leave in 1992. Terrorism against Jewish targets continued: bombings in Buenos Aires killed 29 at Israel's embassy in 1992 and 85 at the AMIA community center in 1994, and synagogues were attacked in Djerba in 2002 and Istanbul in 2003. About 1,000 Israelis were killed during the Second Intifada of 2000 to 2005, many in suicide bombings. From the mid-2000s, Europe saw a series of antisemitic murders and attacks, including the torture and killing of Ilan Halimi in 2006, the Toulouse school shooting in 2012, the Brussels Jewish Museum in 2014 and the Paris kosher supermarket in 2015. About 7,000 French Jews moved to Israel in 2014 alone. In the United States, white supremacists chanted antisemitic slogans at Charlottesville in 2017, and the 2018 attack on Pittsburgh's Tree of Life synagogue killed 11 worshipers, the deadliest attack on a Jewish community in American history. More attacks followed in Poway, Jersey City and Monsey in 2019, and a gunman attacked the synagogue in Halle, Germany, on Yom Kippur. In 2022 Russia's invasion of Ukraine uprooted Jewish communities in both countries.","keyFacts":["About 1 million emigrants from the former Soviet Union settled in Israel after 1990, and 300,000 had settled in the United States by 2000.","The 1994 AMIA bombing killed 85 people, the deadliest terrorist attack in Argentina's history.","A record of about 7,000 French Jews moved to Israel in 2014.","The 2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting killed 11 worshipers.","ADL counted 3,698 antisemitic incidents in the United States in 2022."],"regions":[{"region":"Former Soviet Union","summary":"Mass emigration after 1989 left smaller, older communities; about 200,000 Jews left Russia alone between 1989 and 1993. Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine displaced Jews in both countries."},{"region":"Western Europe","summary":"France suffered repeated antisemitic murders and attacks, from Ilan Halimi (2006) to Toulouse (2012), the Hypercacher siege (2015) and the killing of Holocaust survivor Mireille Knoll (2018); Belgium, Denmark and Germany also saw deadly attacks."},{"region":"United States","summary":"Violent attacks rose, from Pittsburgh (2018) to Poway, Jersey City and Monsey (2019) and the Colleyville hostage crisis (2022)."},{"region":"Latin America, Africa and Asia","summary":"Bombings killed 29 at Israel's Buenos Aires embassy (1992) and 85 at the AMIA center (1994); synagogues were attacked in Djerba (2002) and Istanbul (2003), and Mumbai's Chabad House in 2008."}],"sourceIds":["s17","s116","s117","s118","s119","s120","s121","s122","s123","s124","s125","s126","s127","s128","s129","s130","s131","s132","s133","s134","s135","s136","s137","s138","s193"]},{"id":"2023-2025","from":2023,"to":2025,"title":"October 7 and a worldwide surge in antisemitism","summary":"On 7 October 2023, Hamas-led militants attacked southern Israel, killing about 1,200 people, most of them civilians, and taking 251 hostages. The war in Gaza that followed killed tens of thousands of Palestinians before a ceasefire in October 2025. Antisemitic incidents rose sharply around the world. The Anti-Defamation League counted 8,873 incidents in the United States in 2023, 5,204 of them after October 7, and a record 9,354 in 2024. Britain's Community Security Trust recorded a record 4,298 in 2023. An EU survey carried out before October 7 had already found that 80% of Jews felt antisemitism was growing and 76% sometimes hid their Jewish identity. Violence followed: a mob stormed Dagestan's main airport looking for Israeli passengers in 2023; gunmen burned synagogues in Dagestan and arsonists attacked a Melbourne synagogue in 2024. In 2025, two Israeli embassy staff were shot dead in Washington, a firebomb attack on a hostage-solidarity walk in Boulder killed an 82-year-old woman, two men died in an attack on a Manchester synagogue on Yom Kippur, and gunmen killed 15 people at a Hanukkah celebration at Bondi Beach in Sydney. US incidents fell to 6,274 in 2025, still the third-highest on record, while assaults reached a record high.","keyFacts":["About 1,200 people were killed in Israel on 7 October 2023 and 251 taken hostage.","ADL counted 8,873 US antisemitic incidents in 2023, 9,354 in 2024 and 6,274 in 2025.","CST recorded 4,298 antisemitic incidents in the UK in 2023, 3,556 in 2024 and 3,700 in 2025.","In an EU survey of almost 8,000 Jews, 76% said they at least sometimes hid their Jewish identity.","The Bondi Beach attack of 14 December 2025 killed 15 people at a Hanukkah event."],"regions":[{"region":"Israel","summary":"The October 7 attack was followed by a long war in Gaza; a year later, nearly 100 hostages were still held there."},{"region":"United States","summary":"Antisemitic incidents hit a record in 2024. In 2025 attackers killed two Israeli embassy staff in Washington and firebombed a hostage-solidarity walk in Boulder."},{"region":"Europe and Russia","summary":"Britain recorded its highest-ever incident totals, and two men died in the 2025 Manchester synagogue attack. In Russia's Dagestan region, a mob stormed an airport in 2023 and gunmen burned synagogues in 2024."},{"region":"Australia","summary":"An arson attack struck Melbourne's Adass Israel Synagogue in 2024, and the Bondi Beach Hanukkah attack of December 2025 was the first fatal attack targeting Jews in Australia."}],"sourceIds":["s139","s140","s141","s142","s138","s143","s144","s145","s146","s147","s148","s149","s150","s151","s152","s153","s154"]}],"events":[{"id":"mass-emigration-to-america-1881-1914","year":1881,"endYear":1914,"date":null,"title":"Mass emigration from Eastern Europe to America","countries":["Russian Empire","Austria-Hungary","Romania","United States"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"More than 2 million Eastern European Jews moved to the United States between 1881 and 1914: about 1.6 million from the Russian Empire, 380,000 from Austria-Hungary and 80,000 from Romania. Nearly 3 million Jews left the Russian Empire for the West between the 1870s and 1917.","sourceIds":["s17","s2"]},{"id":"pogroms-1881-1882","year":1881,"endYear":1882,"date":null,"title":"Pogrom wave after the assassination of Alexander II","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"After Tsar Alexander II was assassinated, more than 250 anti-Jewish riots spread through the empire's southwestern provinces, beginning in Elisavetgrad. Most of the violence targeted property, destroying millions of rubles' worth. Scholars put Jewish deaths at under 100. The shock fed Jewish socialism, early Zionism and emigration.","sourceIds":["s4","s22"]},{"id":"may-laws-1882","year":1882,"endYear":1917,"date":"1882-05-15","title":"May Laws restrict Jewish settlement","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"\"Temporary\" rules proposed by Interior Minister Nikolai Ignatiev banned new Jewish settlement in villages inside the Pale of Settlement. They were narrower than often claimed, but local officials applied them arbitrarily, causing real hardship for rural Jews. They stayed in force until 1917.","sourceIds":["s3","s2","s155"]},{"id":"first-aliyah-1882","year":1882,"endYear":1903,"date":null,"title":"First Aliyah to Ottoman Palestine","countries":["Russian Empire","Romania","Ottoman Palestine"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"In the wake of the pogroms and the May Laws, Jews mainly from the Russian Empire and Romania began settling in Ottoman Palestine and founding farming colonies. Estimates of the number who came range from 25,000 to 60,000, and many later moved on elsewhere.","sourceIds":["s156"]},{"id":"tiszaeszlar-blood-libel-1882","year":1882,"endYear":1883,"date":null,"title":"Tiszaeszlár blood libel","countries":["Austria-Hungary"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"When a 14-year-old Christian girl disappeared in a Hungarian village, local Jews were accused of murdering her for ritual purposes. Newspapers turned the case into a blood libel that stirred antisemitic agitation across Austria-Hungary. After a long trial, all of the accused were acquitted.","sourceIds":["s11"]},{"id":"russian-education-quota-1887","year":1887,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Quotas on Jewish students in Russian schools and universities","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"quota","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"A new regulation capped the share of Jewish students in secondary schools and universities, commonly given as 10% inside the Pale of Settlement, 5% outside it and 3% in Moscow and St Petersburg. The caps applied even in towns where Jews were a majority of the population.","sourceIds":["s6","s7"]},{"id":"moscow-expulsion-1891","year":1891,"endYear":1892,"date":null,"title":"Expulsion of Jews from Moscow","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"expulsion","deaths":null,"displaced":{"low":20000,"high":20000},"summary":"Under Governor-General Grand Duke Sergei, imperial orders in 1891 and 1892 expelled Jewish artisans and the descendants of Jewish army veterans from Moscow. About 20,000 Jews were forced out in a short time, and the expulsion drew international criticism.","sourceIds":["s5","s3","s7"]},{"id":"dreyfus-affair-1894","year":1894,"endYear":1906,"date":null,"title":"Dreyfus Affair","countries":["France"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish French artillery officer, was wrongly convicted of treason in 1894 and sent to Devil's Island. Army leaders suppressed evidence against the real culprit and relied on forged documents. The case split French society and exposed deep antisemitism before Dreyfus was cleared in 1906.","sourceIds":["s14"]},{"id":"first-zionist-congress-1897","year":1897,"endYear":null,"date":"1897-08-29","title":"First Zionist Congress in Basel","countries":["Switzerland"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Theodor Herzl convened the first Zionist Congress in Basel on 29 to 31 August 1897. It founded the Zionist Organization and adopted the Basel Program, which sought a publicly and legally secured home for the Jewish people in Palestine.","sourceIds":["s157"]},{"id":"lueger-vienna-mayor-1897","year":1897,"endYear":1910,"date":null,"title":"Karl Lueger becomes mayor of Vienna","countries":["Austria-Hungary"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Karl Lueger, founder and leader of the populist, antisemitic Christian Social Party, took office as mayor of Vienna in 1897 once his election was finally sanctioned. He governed the city until his death in 1910, and his politics are sometimes seen as a model for later Nazi antisemitism.","sourceIds":["s15"]},{"id":"hilsner-affair-1899","year":1899,"endYear":1900,"date":null,"title":"Hilsner blood-libel trials","countries":["Austria-Hungary"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Leopold Hilsner, a young Jewish man from Polná in Bohemia, was sentenced to death for a murder that antisemites cast as a ritual killing. Professor Tomáš Masaryk publicly challenged the case. The sentence was commuted to life, and Hilsner spent 19 years in prison before a pardon in 1918.","sourceIds":["s12"]},{"id":"romanian-jewish-emigration-1900","year":1900,"endYear":1914,"date":null,"title":"Romanian Jews, denied citizenship, emigrate","countries":["Romania"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Romania refused citizenship to almost all native Jews despite the 1878 Treaty of Berlin; only 529 obtained it between 1880 and 1913. Poverty and discrimination drove mass emigration, starting with the fusgeyers who set out on foot in 1900. Almost 70,000 had left by the eve of World War I.","sourceIds":["s16","s17"]},{"id":"kishinev-pogrom-1903","year":1903,"endYear":null,"date":"1903-04-19","title":"Kishinev pogrom","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":40,"high":49},"displaced":null,"summary":"Over three days beginning on Easter, rioters in Kishinev, Bessarabia, killed between 40 and 49 Jews, gravely injured about 90 and damaged some 1,500 homes, after antisemitic newspaper articles spread a blood-libel accusation. The massacre caused worldwide outrage and spurred the creation of Jewish self-defense units.","sourceIds":["s4","s10","s158"]},{"id":"protocols-published-1903","year":1903,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion first published","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"A fabricated text claiming a secret Jewish plan for world domination first appeared in a Russian newspaper in 1903. In the 1920s it spread across Europe and the United States, where Henry Ford promoted similar claims. The Times of London exposed it as a plagiarized forgery in 1921, yet it remains the most widely distributed antisemitic publication of modern times.","sourceIds":["s158"]},{"id":"aliens-act-1905","year":1905,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Britain's Aliens Act","countries":["United Kingdom"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Britain's first modern immigration-control law followed a rise in Jewish immigration from the Russian Empire after 1881. Presented as a way to keep out paupers and criminals, it let officials turn away migrants judged \"undesirable\"; one of its main aims was to control Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe.","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"id":"october-1905-pogroms","year":1905,"endYear":1906,"date":null,"title":"Pogroms after the October Manifesto","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":400,"high":2000},"displaced":null,"summary":"After the Tsar's October 1905 Manifesto, loyalist mobs who equated Jews with revolution attacked Jewish communities in about 660 towns, mostly in today's Ukraine. In Odessa alone, more than 400 Jews were killed and over 1,600 Jewish properties damaged or destroyed. One overview estimates about 2,000 Jewish deaths across the whole 1903-1906 wave.","sourceIds":["s4","s8","s9"]},{"id":"bialystok-pogrom-1906","year":1906,"endYear":null,"date":"1906-06-14","title":"Białystok pogrom","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":70,"high":88},"displaced":null,"summary":"Over three days in June 1906, Russian soldiers and Black Hundreds mobs killed more than 70 Jews in Białystok; a cemetery memorial lists 80 names and some counts reach 88. About 90 more were gravely wounded. A Russian State Duma report found that the government and police administration had planned the violence.","sourceIds":["s4","s159"]},{"id":"beilis-affair-1911","year":1911,"endYear":1913,"date":null,"title":"Beilis blood-libel trial in Kiev","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Mendel Beilis, a Jewish brick-factory superintendent in Kiev, was arrested in 1911 and held for more than two years on the medieval charge of murdering a Christian boy for his blood. Despite a rigged jury and pressured witnesses, he was acquitted in 1913, but the state had put the blood libel on trial.","sourceIds":["s13","s22"]},{"id":"fez-riots-1912","year":1912,"endYear":null,"date":"1912-04-17","title":"Fez riots (the \"Tritl\")","countries":["Morocco"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":42,"high":42},"displaced":null,"summary":"When Moroccan troops mutinied against their French officers in Fez, rioters attacked the European and Jewish quarters, and French artillery fire on the Jewish quarter added to the destruction. About 42 Moroccan Jews were killed, along with roughly 600 Moroccan Muslims and 66 Europeans.","sourceIds":["s19"]},{"id":"leo-frank-case-1913","year":1913,"endYear":1915,"date":"1913-08-25","title":"Leo Frank convicted and lynched","countries":["United States"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"Leo Frank, a Jewish factory superintendent in Atlanta, was convicted in 1913 of murdering a 13-year-old employee amid antisemitic agitation. After Georgia's governor commuted his death sentence in 1915, a mob kidnapped him from prison and lynched him. In 1986 Georgia pardoned him, citing the state's failure to protect him.","sourceIds":["s18"]},{"id":"wwi-russian-expulsions-1915","year":1914,"endYear":1915,"date":null,"title":"Russian army expels Jews from front-line areas","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"expulsion","deaths":null,"displaced":{"low":500000,"high":500000},"summary":"Suspecting Jews of disloyalty, Russian commanders took Jewish hostages, executed alleged spies and expelled whole communities near the front. Between March and September 1915, more than half a million Jews were driven from their homes. Resettling them in the Russian interior effectively ended the Pale of Settlement.","sourceIds":["s20","s4","s3"]},{"id":"russian-emancipation-1917","year":1917,"endYear":null,"date":"1917-04-02","title":"Russia abolishes its anti-Jewish laws","countries":["Russian Empire"],"type":"emancipation","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"After the fall of the Tsar, the Provisional Government formally abolished the Pale of Settlement and all other special legislation against Jews on 20 March (2 April, new style) 1917, giving Russia's Jews legal equality for the first time.","sourceIds":["s3"]},{"id":"balfour-declaration-1917","year":1917,"endYear":null,"date":"1917-11-02","title":"Balfour Declaration","countries":["United Kingdom","Ottoman Palestine"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"In a letter to Lord Rothschild, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour announced his government's support for establishing a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine, then an Ottoman territory with a small Jewish minority.","sourceIds":["s35"]},{"id":"lwow-pogrom-1918","year":1918,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Lwów pogrom","countries":["Poland"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":52,"high":150},"displaced":null,"summary":"After Polish forces took Lwów from Ukrainian troops, soldiers and civilians attacked the Jewish quarter for three days, accusing Jews of siding with the Ukrainians. A British inquiry counted 52 Jews killed and 463 injured; other estimates run as high as 150 dead.","sourceIds":["s29","s42"]},{"id":"civil-war-pogroms-1918-1921","year":1918,"endYear":1921,"date":null,"title":"Pogroms of the Russian Civil War","countries":["Ukraine","Russia","Belarus"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":50000,"high":200000},"displaced":{"low":500000,"high":500000},"summary":"Ukrainian nationalist troops, White armies, warlords and, less often, Red Army units carried out more than a thousand pogroms. The minimum credible estimate is 50,000 Jews killed; other historians estimate 100,000 to 200,000. Contemporary Jewish sources said half a million people were driven from their homes. It was the worst anti-Jewish violence before the Holocaust.","sourceIds":["s4","s21","s22","s23"]},{"id":"proskurov-pogrom-1919","year":1919,"endYear":null,"date":"1919-02-15","title":"Proskurov pogrom","countries":["Ukraine"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":1500,"high":1700},"displaced":null,"summary":"After a failed Bolshevik uprising in Proskurov (now Khmelnytskyi), soldiers of the Ukrainian People's Republic under Ivan Semesenko murdered at least 1,500 Jews in a few hours, possibly as many as 1,700, and wounded more than 1,000. The massacre became emblematic of the civil-war pogroms.","sourceIds":["s21","s24"]},{"id":"pinsk-massacre-1919","year":1919,"endYear":null,"date":"1919-04-05","title":"Pinsk massacre","countries":["Poland"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":35,"high":35},"displaced":null,"summary":"Polish soldiers in Pinsk summarily executed 35 young Jews as suspected Communists after seizing them at a public meeting called to share out Passover aid.","sourceIds":["s30","s4","s43"]},{"id":"hungary-white-terror-1919","year":1919,"endYear":1920,"date":null,"title":"White Terror in Hungary","countries":["Hungary"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"After the collapse of the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic, many of whose leaders were of Jewish origin, counter-revolutionary forces carried out anti-communist and anti-Jewish atrocities across central Hungary and Transdanubia, even though most Hungarian Jews had opposed the Communist regime.","sourceIds":["s25"]},{"id":"romanian-civil-rights-1919","year":1919,"endYear":1923,"date":null,"title":"Romania forced to grant Jews civil rights","countries":["Romania"],"type":"emancipation","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The post-war Minorities Treaties compelled Romania in 1919 to grant civil rights to its Jews, including those in newly annexed territories, and the 1923 constitution enshrined them. Before this, only 529 Romanian Jews had been naturalized between 1880 and 1913.","sourceIds":["s16"]},{"id":"hungary-numerus-clausus-1920","year":1920,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Hungary's numerus clausus law","countries":["Hungary"],"type":"quota","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Act XXV of 1920, the first anti-Jewish law in post-war Europe, capped the share of Jewish students in higher education at 6%, matching Jews' share of the population. Jews had made up about 15% of students in the 1910s. In 1928, citing its minority-protection obligations, Hungary dropped the ethnic quota clause.","sourceIds":["s25","s26"]},{"id":"nebi-musa-riots-1920","year":1920,"endYear":null,"date":"1920-04-04","title":"Nebi Musa riots in Jerusalem","countries":["Mandatory Palestine"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":5,"high":5},"displaced":null,"summary":"Riots during the Nebi Musa festival in Jerusalem on 4 to 7 April 1920 killed five Jews and injured about 216. Four Arabs were also killed.","sourceIds":["s40"]},{"id":"jaffa-riots-1921","year":1921,"endYear":null,"date":"1921-05-01","title":"Jaffa riots","countries":["Mandatory Palestine"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":47,"high":47},"displaced":null,"summary":"Clashes that began on May Day in Jaffa turned into attacks on Jews, including an assault on an immigrant hostel run by the Zionist Commission. In all, 47 Jews and 48 Arabs were killed; most of the Arab dead were shot by the British-led police.","sourceIds":["s41"]},{"id":"us-quota-act-1921","year":1921,"endYear":null,"date":"1921-05-19","title":"US Emergency Quota Act","countries":["United States"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"President Warren Harding signed the Emergency Quota Act, which for the first time set quotas on immigrants from each country. Congress rejected an exemption for people fleeing persecution. Together with the stricter 1924 law, it ended the era of mass Jewish immigration to America.","sourceIds":["s31","s17"]},{"id":"soviet-antireligious-campaign-1920s","year":1921,"endYear":1929,"date":null,"title":"Soviet campaign closes most Jewish religious institutions","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"During the 1920s the Communists shut down the last Jewish political parties and, in a wider antireligious campaign, eliminated most synagogues and Jewish schools, charities and communal bodies. Religious education was banned, and Zionism was suppressed.","sourceIds":["s38"]},{"id":"rathenau-assassination-1922","year":1922,"endYear":null,"date":"1922-06-24","title":"Assassination of Walther Rathenau","countries":["Germany"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"Walther Rathenau, Germany's Jewish foreign minister, was murdered in Berlin by members of the ultra-nationalist Organisation Consul. Right-wing groups had branded him part of a Jewish-communist conspiracy, and his killers reportedly believed he was one of the \"Elders of Zion\".","sourceIds":["s33"]},{"id":"us-university-quotas-1922","year":1922,"endYear":1926,"date":null,"title":"Jewish quotas at American universities","countries":["United States"],"type":"quota","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Harvard president A. Lawrence Lowell, alarmed that Jewish enrollment had risen from 6% to 22% between 1908 and 1922, called for limiting Jewish admissions. Harvard, Yale and other private universities and many medical schools adopted quotas or \"character\" tests that lasted into the 1950s; in 1935 Yale's medical school admitted five of about 200 Jewish applicants.","sourceIds":["s32","s26"]},{"id":"romania-student-quota-campaign-1923","year":1923,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Romanian nationalists campaign for university quotas","countries":["Romania"],"type":"quota","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"After Jews won civil rights, A. C. Cuza founded the League of National Christian Defense in 1923, which demanded a numerus clausus on Jews in schools and universities. Students in the quota campaign later formed the core of the fascist Legion of the Archangel Michael, later the Iron Guard.","sourceIds":["s27","s16"]},{"id":"us-immigration-act-1924","year":1924,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"US Johnson-Reed Immigration Act","countries":["United States"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The Immigration Act of 1924 capped quota immigration at 164,667 people a year and heavily favored northern Europe over southern and eastern Europe. The quotas were not changed in the 1930s, limiting refuge for Jews fleeing Nazi Germany, and lasted until 1965.","sourceIds":["s31","s17"]},{"id":"birobidzhan-1928","year":1928,"endYear":1934,"date":null,"title":"Birobidzhan designated a Soviet Jewish territory","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Soviet authorities designated a remote area on the Manchurian border for Jewish farming settlement in 1928 and made it the Jewish Autonomous Region in 1934. Few Jews moved there: about 525 in 1928 and 5,250 in the peak year of 1934.","sourceIds":["s39"]},{"id":"palestine-riots-1929","year":1929,"endYear":null,"date":"1929-08-23","title":"1929 riots: Hebron and Safed massacres","countries":["Mandatory Palestine"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":133,"high":133},"displaced":null,"summary":"A week of Arab attacks on Jews in August 1929 killed 133 Jews. In Hebron, 67 Jews were murdered and the city's centuries-old Jewish community came to an end. About 116 Arabs were also killed, most of them by British security forces.","sourceIds":["s36","s37"]},{"id":"nazi-breakthrough-1930","year":1930,"endYear":null,"date":"1930-09-14","title":"Nazi electoral breakthrough","countries":["Germany"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"In the Reichstag election of September 1930, held during the Depression, the antisemitic Nazi Party won about 18% of the vote and became a major national force.","sourceIds":["s34"]},{"id":"hitler-appointed-1933","year":1933,"endYear":null,"date":"1933-01-30","title":"Hitler appointed chancellor","countries":["Germany"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933. Within weeks, emergency decrees and the Enabling Act let the Nazis dismantle democracy and begin persecuting Jews and political opponents.","sourceIds":["s34"]},{"id":"nazi-boycott-1933","year":1933,"endYear":null,"date":"1933-04-01","title":"Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses","countries":["Germany"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The Nazis staged their first nationwide action against Jews: a boycott of Jewish-owned shops and Jewish professionals, meant to intimidate Germany's Jews and discourage Germans from dealing with them.","sourceIds":["s44"]},{"id":"civil-service-law-1933","year":1933,"endYear":null,"date":"1933-04-07","title":"Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service","countries":["Germany"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"This law ordered Jewish and \"politically unreliable\" officials out of state service, including teachers and university professors. Under Nazi rule, about one in five German university teaching staff was eventually expelled, some 80% of them on antisemitic grounds. Many leading scientists emigrated, including Nobel laureates Einstein, Franck and Schrödinger.","sourceIds":["s45","s160","s47","s48"]},{"id":"german-student-quota-1933","year":1933,"endYear":null,"date":"1933-04-25","title":"Germany imposes 1.5% quota on \"non-Aryan\" students","countries":["Germany"],"type":"quota","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The Law against the Overcrowding of German Schools and Universities limited new admissions of \"non-Aryan\" pupils and students, in practice mostly Jews, to 1.5%.","sourceIds":["s45","s26"]},{"id":"book-burnings-1933","year":1933,"endYear":null,"date":"1933-05-10","title":"Nazi book burnings","countries":["Germany"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Nazi university students burned books they called \"un-German\" at ceremonies across Germany, including books by Jewish authors, pacifist works and left-wing writing.","sourceIds":["s161"]},{"id":"academic-assistance-council-1933","year":1933,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Britain's Academic Assistance Council founded","countries":["United Kingdom"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Hearing of the dismissals, LSE director William Beveridge set up a council, with Ernest Rutherford as president, to rescue scholars expelled by the Nazis. By 1939 it had aided at least 900 scholars, and sixteen of the people it helped in its early years later won Nobel Prizes.","sourceIds":["s162","s163","s164"]},{"id":"german-jewish-emigration-1933-1939","year":1933,"endYear":1939,"date":null,"title":"Flight of Jews from Germany and Austria","countries":["Germany","Austria"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":{"low":399000,"high":399000},"summary":"Dismissals, boycotts and violence drove Jews to leave. By September 1939 about 282,000 had left Germany and 117,000 had left annexed Austria, often stripped of their property by an ever-heavier emigration tax and limits on moving money abroad.","sourceIds":["s55"]},{"id":"holocaust-1933-1945","year":1933,"endYear":1945,"date":null,"title":"The Holocaust","countries":["Europe"],"type":"genocide","deaths":{"low":6000000,"high":6000000},"displaced":null,"summary":"Nazi Germany and its allies and collaborators murdered six million Jewish men, women and children, nearly two of every three European Jews. About 2.7 million were killed at killing centers and about 2 million in mass shootings; the rest died in ghettos, camps and on death marches.","sourceIds":["s60","s61"]},{"id":"kaiser-wilhelm-dismissals-1933","year":1933,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Jewish scientists dismissed from Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes","countries":["Germany"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Germany's leading research society, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, dismissed 126 staff members, 104 of them scientists, under the civil service law after Max Planck failed to change Hitler's mind. Some rebuilt careers abroad; four of the expelled scientists were later murdered in concentration camps.","sourceIds":["s165"]},{"id":"nuremberg-laws-1935","year":1935,"endYear":null,"date":"1935-09-15","title":"Nuremberg Race Laws","countries":["Germany"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Two laws announced at the Nazi Party rally declared that Jews could not be German citizens and banned marriage and sexual relations between Jews and non-Jewish Germans. A new wave of segregation followed; Jewish university students, for example, were no longer allowed to sit doctoral exams.","sourceIds":["s49","s45"]},{"id":"przytyk-pogrom-1936","year":1936,"endYear":null,"date":"1936-03-09","title":"Przytyk pogrom","countries":["Poland"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":2,"high":2},"displaced":null,"summary":"During anti-Jewish riots in the Polish town of Przytyk, a Jewish couple, Chaja and Josek Minkowski, were killed and their children beaten. A Polish peasant was shot dead by a Jew during the clash, and the violence was one of several interwar pogroms in Poland.","sourceIds":["s166","s4"]},{"id":"polish-ghetto-benches-1937","year":1937,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"\"Ghetto benches\" in Polish universities","countries":["Poland"],"type":"quota","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Segregated seating for Jewish students, first imposed at the Lwów Polytechnic in 1935, spread after a 1937 ministry decision let universities regulate seating. Admission quotas also spread, the number of Jewish students fell, and some professors signed protests.","sourceIds":["s167","s28"]},{"id":"anschluss-1938","year":1938,"endYear":null,"date":"1938-03-12","title":"Germany annexes Austria","countries":["Austria"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"German troops entered Austria on 12 March 1938, and Nazi anti-Jewish laws were quickly extended there. The University of Vienna dismissed large numbers of teachers and students for political and \"racial\" reasons. Emigration cut Austria's Jewish population, about 192,000 in 1938, to 57,000 by December 1939.","sourceIds":["s50","s168"]},{"id":"evian-conference-1938","year":1938,"endYear":null,"date":"1938-07-06","title":"Evian Conference on refugees","countries":["France"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Delegates from 32 countries met at Evian, France, from 6 to 15 July 1938 to discuss Jewish refugees from Germany and Austria. Apart from the tiny Dominican Republic, no country agreed to take in more refugees.","sourceIds":["s53","s169"]},{"id":"polenaktion-1938","year":1938,"endYear":null,"date":"1938-10-27","title":"Germany expels Polish Jews","countries":["Germany","Poland"],"type":"expulsion","deaths":null,"displaced":{"low":17000,"high":17000},"summary":"Over 27 to 29 October 1938, German authorities rounded up and deported more than 17,000 Jews with Polish citizenship, many born in Germany. The expulsion of his family to Zbąszyń led Herschel Grynszpan to shoot a German diplomat in Paris, which the Nazis used as a pretext for Kristallnacht.","sourceIds":["s52"]},{"id":"kristallnacht-1938","year":1938,"endYear":null,"date":"1938-11-09","title":"Kristallnacht","countries":["Germany","Austria"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":91,"high":2000},"displaced":null,"summary":"In a nationwide pogrom on 9 to 10 November 1938, Nazis burned more than 1,400 synagogues, wrecked thousands of Jewish businesses and homes, and imprisoned about 26,000 Jewish men in concentration camps. Early reports counted 91 murders; counting later deaths from abuse and suicides, the toll ran into the hundreds, with some estimates of 1,000 to 2,000.","sourceIds":["s52","s79"]},{"id":"italian-racial-laws-1938","year":1938,"endYear":null,"date":"1938-11-17","title":"Italy's racial laws","countries":["Italy"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Fascist Italy's racial laws removed Jews from government jobs and public-school teaching, excluded them from higher education, banned marriages with non-Jews and expelled them from the armed forces and media. Thousands of Italian Jews emigrated, mainly to the Americas, between 1938 and 1942.","sourceIds":["s51","s78"]},{"id":"kindertransport-1938","year":1938,"endYear":1940,"date":"1938-12-02","title":"Kindertransport","countries":["Germany","Austria","Czechoslovakia","United Kingdom"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"After Kristallnacht, Britain agreed to admit unaccompanied refugee children. Between December 1938 and May 1940, about 10,000 children, mostly from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia, reached safety in Britain without their parents.","sourceIds":["s170"]},{"id":"hungary-jewish-laws-1938","year":1938,"endYear":1941,"date":null,"title":"Hungary's anti-Jewish laws","countries":["Hungary"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Hungary's First Jewish Law (1938) capped Jews at 20% of the free professions and of many private-sector jobs. The Second Jewish Law (1939) defined Jews by race and cut the cap to 6%, and the Third (1941) banned marriage and sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews.","sourceIds":["s25","s64"]},{"id":"st-louis-voyage-1939","year":1939,"endYear":null,"date":"1939-05-13","title":"Voyage of the St. Louis","countries":["Germany","Cuba","United States"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The liner St. Louis left Hamburg for Havana with 937 passengers, almost all Jewish refugees. Cuba refused to let most of them land, the United States and Canada would not admit them, and the ship returned to Europe. 254 of the passengers were later killed in the Holocaust.","sourceIds":["s171"]},{"id":"invasion-of-poland-1939","year":1939,"endYear":null,"date":"1939-09-01","title":"Germany invades Poland; World War II begins","countries":["Poland"],"type":"war","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Germany's invasion of Poland started World War II. Poland had Europe's largest Jewish community, about 3.1 million people in 1931. Almost 3 million Polish Jews, close to 90% of the pre-war community, perished by January 1945.","sourceIds":["s56","s28","s57"]},{"id":"british-white-paper-1939","year":1939,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"British White Paper limits immigration to Palestine","countries":["United Kingdom","Mandatory Palestine"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Britain's 1939 White Paper capped Jewish immigration to Palestine at 75,000 over five years, with later immigration subject to Arab consent. It remained British policy through the Holocaust and until 1948; by 1944 only 51,000 of the certificates had been used.","sourceIds":["s54","s82"]},{"id":"cremieux-decree-revoked-1940","year":1940,"endYear":null,"date":"1940-10-07","title":"Vichy strips Algerian Jews of citizenship","countries":["Algeria"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The Vichy regime revoked the 1870 Crémieux Decree, abolishing the French citizenship of Algerian Jews and affecting about 110,000 people.","sourceIds":["s73"]},{"id":"warsaw-ghetto-1940","year":1940,"endYear":1943,"date":"1940-11-15","title":"Warsaw ghetto sealed","countries":["Poland"],"type":"genocide","deaths":{"low":83000,"high":92000},"displaced":null,"summary":"German authorities sealed the Warsaw ghetto, eventually confining more than 400,000 Jews in about 1.3 square miles. Starvation and disease killed 83,000 people by mid-1942; counting later violence, about 92,000 died inside the ghetto. About 265,000 were deported to Treblinka in the summer of 1942.","sourceIds":["s172","s58","s173","s174"]},{"id":"vichy-jewish-statute-1940","year":1940,"endYear":1941,"date":null,"title":"Vichy France's Jewish Statute","countries":["France"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Vichy France's Jewish Statute, issued in two parts in October 1940 and June 1941, pushed Jews out of public life, the civil service and the military, and barred them from many occupations, including medicine, law and teaching.","sourceIds":["s68"]},{"id":"farhud-1941","year":1941,"endYear":null,"date":"1941-06-01","title":"Farhud pogrom in Baghdad","countries":["Iraq"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":128,"high":180},"displaced":null,"summary":"After a pro-Axis coup collapsed, soldiers, police and youth militias led two days of attacks on Baghdad's Jews during the Shavuot holiday. An official inquiry counted 128 Jews killed; other estimates reach 150 to 180, with hundreds injured and more than 1,500 homes and businesses damaged.","sourceIds":["s72"]},{"id":"iasi-pogrom-1941","year":1941,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Iași pogrom","countries":["Romania"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":4000,"high":13266},"displaced":null,"summary":"As Romania joined the invasion of the Soviet Union, Romanian officials, police and soldiers, at times aided by German soldiers, massacred Jews in Iași in late June 1941. USHMM counts at least 4,000 murdered in the city; other estimates put the first killings at 8,000. Counting deaths on sealed deportation trains, Romanian authorities put the toll above 13,000.","sourceIds":["s65","s175","s46","s176"]},{"id":"lwow-pogrom-1941","year":1941,"endYear":null,"date":"1941-06-30","title":"Lwów pogrom","countries":["Poland","Ukraine"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"As German forces entered Lwów, they and some Ukrainian nationalist activists incited local mobs against Jews, who were beaten, raped and murdered. At least several hundred and possibly a few thousand Jews were killed.","sourceIds":["s177"]},{"id":"jedwabne-massacre-1941","year":1941,"endYear":null,"date":"1941-07-10","title":"Jedwabne massacre","countries":["Poland"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":340,"high":1600},"displaced":null,"summary":"Polish residents of Jedwabne took part in murdering hundreds of their Jewish neighbors, many burned alive in a barn, with German police present in the town. Poland's Institute of National Remembrance found at least 340 victims; an earlier estimate of 1,600 was not confirmed by its investigation.","sourceIds":["s175","s178"]},{"id":"kamenets-podolsk-1941","year":1941,"endYear":null,"date":"1941-08-27","title":"Kamenets-Podolsk massacre","countries":["Hungary","Ukraine"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":23600,"high":23600},"displaced":null,"summary":"Hungary deported more than 20,000 Jews it deemed foreigners into German-held territory; most were taken to Kamenets-Podolsk, where German SS and police units, helped by local collaborators, shot 23,600 Jews over three days.","sourceIds":["s64","s46"]},{"id":"babyn-yar-1941","year":1941,"endYear":null,"date":"1941-09-29","title":"Babyn Yar (Babi Yar) massacre","countries":["Ukraine"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":33771,"high":33771},"displaced":null,"summary":"German SS and police units with local auxiliaries shot Kyiv's remaining Jews at the Babyn Yar ravine over two days; German reports recorded 33,771 Jews killed. In the months that followed, thousands more Jews, Roma and Soviet prisoners of war were shot there.","sourceIds":["s77","s46"]},{"id":"odesa-massacre-1941","year":1941,"endYear":null,"date":"1941-10-22","title":"Odesa massacre","countries":["Ukraine"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":25000,"high":30000},"displaced":null,"summary":"After an explosion destroyed Romanian military headquarters in occupied Odesa, Romanian forces killed at least 25,000 to 30,000 Jews in the city and its suburbs within days. Tens of thousands more were then marched to camps such as Bogdanovca, where nearly all died or were murdered.","sourceIds":["s66"]},{"id":"rumbula-1941","year":1941,"endYear":null,"date":"1941-11-30","title":"Rumbula massacre","countries":["Latvia"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":25000,"high":25000},"displaced":null,"summary":"On 30 November and 8 to 9 December 1941, German SS and police units and their Latvian auxiliaries shot at least 25,000 Jews from the Riga ghetto in the nearby Rumbula forest.","sourceIds":["s76","s46"]},{"id":"chelmno-1941","year":1941,"endYear":1945,"date":"1941-12-08","title":"Killings begin at Chełmno","countries":["Poland"],"type":"genocide","deaths":{"low":152000,"high":152000},"displaced":null,"summary":"At Chełmno, in Polish territory annexed to Germany, the SS and police began murdering Jews with poison gas on 8 December 1941; it was the first camp where the Nazis killed Jews with gas. At least 152,000 Jews were murdered there, along with about 4,300 Roma.","sourceIds":["s179"]},{"id":"mass-shootings-ussr-1941","year":1941,"endYear":1944,"date":null,"title":"Mass shootings of Jews in the occupied Soviet Union","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"genocide","deaths":{"low":1500000,"high":2000000},"displaced":null,"summary":"After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, mobile killing units, helped by SS, police and army units, Romanian forces and local collaborators, shot Jewish men, women and children near their homes. At least 1.5 million, and possibly more than 2 million, Jews died in mass shootings and gas vans on Soviet territory.","sourceIds":["s59","s60"]},{"id":"ponary-1941","year":1941,"endYear":1944,"date":null,"title":"Ponary killings near Vilna","countries":["Lithuania"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":70000,"high":70000},"displaced":null,"summary":"From July 1941 to August 1944, German units and Lithuanian collaborators shot Jews from Vilna in the Ponary forest; about 70,000 Jews were murdered there, among up to 100,000 victims in all. About 90% of Lithuania's Jews were killed in the Holocaust, one of Europe's highest rates.","sourceIds":["s75","s46","s180"]},{"id":"transnistria-1941-1944","year":1941,"endYear":1944,"date":null,"title":"Romanian deportations and killings in Transnistria","countries":["Romania","Ukraine","Moldova"],"type":"genocide","deaths":{"low":150000,"high":380000},"displaced":null,"summary":"Romania deported as many as 200,000 Jews, many from Bessarabia and Bukovina, to Transnistria, occupied Ukrainian land under its rule, where they and local Jews were killed by shooting, starvation, disease and exposure. USHMM estimates of Jewish deaths there range from 150,000-250,000 (its Romania article) to 280,000-380,000 (its Transnistria article).","sourceIds":["s67","s65"]},{"id":"wannsee-conference-1942","year":1942,"endYear":null,"date":"1942-01-20","title":"Wannsee Conference","countries":["Germany"],"type":"genocide","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Fifteen senior Nazi Party and German government officials met at a villa in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee to coordinate the deportation and murder of Europe's Jews, which they called the \"Final Solution\".","sourceIds":["s181"]},{"id":"vel-dhiv-roundup-1942","year":1942,"endYear":null,"date":"1942-07-16","title":"Vel d'Hiv roundup","countries":["France"],"type":"genocide","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"French police arrested about 13,000 Jews in Paris on 16 to 17 July 1942 and held many for days in appalling conditions in the Vélodrome d'Hiver arena before deportation. In all, some 77,000 Jews living in France perished in the Holocaust.","sourceIds":["s68"]},{"id":"auschwitz-1942","year":1942,"endYear":1945,"date":null,"title":"Auschwitz-Birkenau","countries":["Poland"],"type":"genocide","deaths":{"low":1000000,"high":1000000},"displaced":null,"summary":"The Nazis deported about 1.1 million Jews to Auschwitz from all over Europe and murdered about one million of them there, most in the gas chambers of Birkenau. About 70,000 Poles, 21,000 Roma and Sinti and 15,000 Soviet prisoners of war were also killed.","sourceIds":["s62","s60"]},{"id":"netherlands-deportations-1942","year":1942,"endYear":1944,"date":null,"title":"Deportation of Dutch Jews","countries":["Netherlands"],"type":"genocide","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Over two years, German authorities and Dutch collaborators deported some 107,000 Jews from the Netherlands, mostly to Auschwitz and Sobibor, where they were murdered.","sourceIds":["s69"]},{"id":"operation-reinhard-1942","year":1942,"endYear":1943,"date":null,"title":"Operation Reinhard killing centers","countries":["Poland"],"type":"genocide","deaths":{"low":1700000,"high":1700000},"displaced":null,"summary":"The SS plan to murder the roughly two million Jews of German-occupied Poland relied on three killing centers: Belzec (at least 434,508 Jewish victims), Sobibor (at least 167,000) and Treblinka (about 925,000). With related shootings, about 1.7 million Jews were murdered.","sourceIds":["s63"]},{"id":"warsaw-ghetto-uprising-1943","year":1943,"endYear":null,"date":"1943-04-19","title":"Warsaw Ghetto Uprising","countries":["Poland"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"When German troops and police entered the ghetto to deport its remaining inhabitants on the eve of Passover, Jewish fighters launched the largest Jewish uprising of the war. The Germans crushed it by 16 May, razed the ghetto and deported the survivors to camps and killing centers.","sourceIds":["s182"]},{"id":"operation-harvest-festival-1943","year":1943,"endYear":null,"date":"1943-11-03","title":"Operation Harvest Festival (Erntefest)","countries":["Poland"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":39000,"high":43000},"displaced":null,"summary":"Alarmed by Jewish uprisings in ghettos and at Treblinka and Sobibor, the SS shot the Jewish prisoners of the Majdanek, Trawniki and Poniatowa camps on 3 to 4 November 1943. Estimates range from 39,000 to 43,000 victims, 18,000 of them just outside Majdanek.","sourceIds":["s183","s63","s184"]},{"id":"rescue-of-danish-jews-1943","year":1943,"endYear":null,"date":"1943-10-01","title":"Rescue of Denmark's Jews","countries":["Denmark","Sweden"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"When German police began arresting Danish Jews in October 1943, Danes helped them reach the coast, and in little more than three weeks fishermen ferried more than 7,000 Jews and nearly 700 non-Jewish relatives to neutral Sweden. About 500 Jews who were caught went to Theresienstadt; Danish protests may have kept them from the killing centers.","sourceIds":["s71"]},{"id":"salonika-deportations-1943","year":1943,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Deportation of the Jews of Salonika","countries":["Greece"],"type":"genocide","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Between March and August 1943, the Germans deported more than 45,000 Jews from Salonika, a great center of Sephardic Jewish life, to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where most were gassed on arrival.","sourceIds":["s70"]},{"id":"hungary-deportations-1944","year":1944,"endYear":1945,"date":"1944-05-15","title":"Deportation of Hungary's Jews","countries":["Hungary"],"type":"genocide","deaths":{"low":500000,"high":500000},"displaced":null,"summary":"After Germany occupied Hungary in March 1944, Hungarian authorities worked with German officials to deport about 437,000 Jews on 147 trains between 15 May and 9 July, nearly all to Auschwitz. About 500,000 Jews from Hungary were killed in this final stage of the war.","sourceIds":["s64"]},{"id":"death-marches-1944","year":1944,"endYear":1945,"date":null,"title":"Death marches","countries":["Germany","Poland","Austria"],"type":"genocide","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"From mid-1944, as Soviet forces advanced, Heinrich Himmler ordered concentration camps emptied toward the German interior. In January 1945 the SS forced tens of thousands of prisoners, mostly Jews, out of Auschwitz. On forced marches and open rail cars in winter, many died of exhaustion, exposure and starvation, and guards shot those who fell behind.","sourceIds":["s185"]},{"id":"liberation-of-auschwitz-1945","year":1945,"endYear":null,"date":"1945-01-27","title":"Liberation of Auschwitz","countries":["Poland"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Soviet troops liberated about 7,000 remaining prisoners at Auschwitz, Birkenau and Monowitz. As Allied forces advanced into Germany in the months that followed, they freed hundreds of thousands of concentration camp prisoners.","sourceIds":["s62","s185"]},{"id":"tripoli-pogrom-1945","year":1945,"endYear":null,"date":"1945-11-05","title":"Tripoli pogrom","countries":["Libya"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":140,"high":140},"displaced":null,"summary":"Under British military occupation, rioters in Tripoli and nearby towns killed more than 140 Jews, including 36 children, over three days in November 1945, and injured hundreds more.","sourceIds":["s74"]},{"id":"kielce-pogrom-1946","year":1946,"endYear":null,"date":"1946-07-04","title":"Kielce pogrom","countries":["Poland"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":42,"high":42},"displaced":null,"summary":"A false rumor that Jews had kidnapped a Christian boy set off a massacre in Kielce: soldiers, police officers and civilians killed 42 Holocaust survivors and injured about 40. The pogrom convinced many survivors they had no future in Poland and spurred mass flight westward.","sourceIds":["s80"]},{"id":"brihah-and-dp-camps-1946","year":1946,"endYear":1952,"date":null,"title":"Brihah and the displaced-persons camps","countries":["Poland","Germany","Austria","Italy"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":{"low":250000,"high":250000},"summary":"In the Brihah (\"flight\"), about 250,000 Holocaust survivors left Eastern Europe. From 1945 to 1952 more than 250,000 Jewish displaced persons lived in camps and cities in Germany, Austria and Italy, many hoping to reach Palestine; most camps closed by 1952.","sourceIds":["s81","s82"]},{"id":"un-partition-plan-1947","year":1947,"endYear":null,"date":"1947-11-29","title":"UN Partition Plan for Palestine","countries":["Mandatory Palestine"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 181, proposing to divide British-ruled Palestine into Jewish and Arab states with international rule for Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Jewish leaders accepted it; Palestinian Arab and wider Arab leaders did not, and civil war broke out.","sourceIds":["s186","s83"]},{"id":"aleppo-riots-1947","year":1947,"endYear":null,"date":"1947-12-01","title":"Anti-Jewish riots in Aleppo","countries":["Syria"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Two days after the UN partition vote, mobs in Aleppo set fire to ten synagogues, five Jewish schools, an orphanage and about 150 Jewish homes. Death tolls are disputed: one account gives about 75 Jews killed, while another historian says security forces prevented killings. About half the city's Jews soon fled.","sourceIds":["s86"]},{"id":"aden-riots-1947","year":1947,"endYear":null,"date":"1947-12-02","title":"Anti-Jewish riots in Aden","countries":["Aden (British colony, now Yemen)"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":82,"high":82},"displaced":null,"summary":"Riots after the UN partition vote in the British colony of Aden on 2 to 4 December 1947 killed 82 Jews, injured 76 and destroyed a synagogue and both Jewish schools. Local troops sent to restore order were responsible for much of the killing; 38 non-Jews also died.","sourceIds":["s85"]},{"id":"exodus-1947","year":1947,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"The refugee ship Exodus 1947","countries":["Mandatory Palestine","Germany"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"British forces stopped the Exodus 1947, carrying 4,500 Holocaust survivors to Palestine, and forcibly returned them to the British zone of Germany. The episode drew worldwide publicity and sympathy for survivors; Britain also held more than 50,000 intercepted Jewish refugees in camps on Cyprus.","sourceIds":["s82"]},{"id":"israel-founded-1948","year":1948,"endYear":null,"date":"1948-05-14","title":"State of Israel established","countries":["Israel"],"type":"state-founding","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"David Ben-Gurion declared the State of Israel as the British Mandate ended. The new state took in Holocaust survivors and Jews from Arab and other countries: about 700,000 Jews settled there between May 1948 and the end of 1951, doubling its Jewish population.","sourceIds":["s82","s83"]},{"id":"arab-israeli-war-1948","year":1948,"endYear":1949,"date":"1948-05-15","title":"1948 Arab-Israeli War","countries":["Israel","Mandatory Palestine"],"type":"war","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Arab armies entered Palestine the day after Israel's founding. Israel lost 6,373 people, about 1% of its population. Around 750,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled during the fighting of 1947 to 1949, a displacement Palestinians call the Nakba.","sourceIds":["s83"]},{"id":"oujda-jerada-riots-1948","year":1948,"endYear":null,"date":"1948-06-07","title":"Oujda and Jerada riots","countries":["Morocco"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":47,"high":47},"displaced":null,"summary":"In response to the war in Palestine, rioters in the Moroccan towns of Oujda and Jerada killed 47 Jews and one Frenchman on 7 to 8 June 1948, injuring many and damaging property.","sourceIds":["s87"]},{"id":"anticosmopolitan-campaign-1948","year":1948,"endYear":1953,"date":null,"title":"Stalin's \"anti-cosmopolitan\" campaign","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"From December 1948 the Soviet press attacked \"rootless cosmopolitans\"; more than 70% of those named in early 1949 were Jews. The purge spread from the arts to science, higher education and the media, Jewish culture was effectively banned, and prominent Jewish figures were arrested.","sourceIds":["s93","s38"]},{"id":"operation-magic-carpet-1949","year":1948,"endYear":1950,"date":"1948-12-16","title":"Operation Magic Carpet from Yemen","countries":["Yemen","Israel"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":{"low":49000,"high":49000},"summary":"Between December 1948 and September 1950, Israel airlifted about 49,000 Yemenite Jews, nearly the whole community, via the British colony of Aden. Yemen's ruler had lifted a long-standing ban on Jewish emigration in 1949.","sourceIds":["s90"]},{"id":"jewish-exodus-from-muslim-world","year":1948,"endYear":1980,"date":null,"title":"Exodus of Jews from Arab and Muslim countries","countries":["Iraq","Yemen","Egypt","Libya","Morocco","Algeria","Tunisia","Syria","Iran"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":{"low":850000,"high":900000},"summary":"About 900,000 Jews migrated, fled or were expelled from Muslim-majority countries in Africa and Asia in the 20th century, mostly after 1948; advocacy groups cite 850,000 from Arab countries. Around 650,000 went to Israel and 235,000 to France, and several communities, such as Libya's, disappeared.","sourceIds":["s84"]},{"id":"soviet-university-discrimination-1949","year":1949,"endYear":1986,"date":null,"title":"Soviet universities discriminate against Jewish applicants","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"quota","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"From the late 1940s until perestroika, many Soviet universities quietly restricted Jewish admissions. At Moscow State University's mathematics faculty, examiners gave Jewish applicants specially designed problems in oral entrance exams meant to make them fail; in 1978 it admitted fewer Jews than the tsarist quota would have allowed.","sourceIds":["s192","s32","s98","s38"]},{"id":"iraq-exodus-1950","year":1950,"endYear":1952,"date":null,"title":"Iraqi Jews denaturalized and airlifted","countries":["Iraq","Israel"],"type":"expulsion","deaths":null,"displaced":{"low":120000,"high":130000},"summary":"In March 1950 Iraq let Jews leave only if they gave up their citizenship, and in March 1951 it blocked the assets of those who had done so. Operation Ezra and Nehemiah then airlifted 120,000 to 130,000 Iraqi Jews, most of the country's Jewish community, to Israel.","sourceIds":["s88"]},{"id":"night-of-murdered-poets-1952","year":1952,"endYear":null,"date":"1952-08-12","title":"Night of the Murdered Poets","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":13,"high":13},"displaced":null,"summary":"Thirteen defendants linked to the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, including five Yiddish writers, were executed in Moscow's Lubyanka prison after a secret trial for espionage and treason. The physiologist Lina Stern, the first woman academician of the Academy of Sciences, was the only one of the 15 defendants to survive.","sourceIds":["s94","s38"]},{"id":"slansky-trial-1952","year":1952,"endYear":null,"date":"1952-11-20","title":"Slánský show trial","countries":["Czechoslovakia"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Czechoslovakia's Communist regime tried party leader Rudolf Slánský and 13 others; the prosecutor stressed that 11 were \"of Jewish origin\". Eleven were hanged in December 1952. Historians regard the trial as a key example of antisemitism in the Soviet bloc.","sourceIds":["s97"]},{"id":"doctors-plot-1953","year":1953,"endYear":null,"date":"1953-01-13","title":"Doctors' Plot","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Pravda accused nine eminent Moscow doctors, six of them Jewish, of plotting to poison Soviet leaders, causing worldwide alarm about the fate of Soviet Jews. The case was fabricated by Stalin's security services; after his death in March 1953 the doctors were cleared and the charges dropped.","sourceIds":["s95","s96"]},{"id":"egypt-suez-expulsions-1956","year":1956,"endYear":1957,"date":null,"title":"Egypt's Jews forced out after Suez","countries":["Egypt"],"type":"expulsion","deaths":null,"displaced":{"low":25000,"high":25000},"summary":"After the Suez invasion by Britain, France and Israel, some 1,000 Egyptian Jews were imprisoned, and about 25,000, nearly half the community, left after being forced to sign statements that they were leaving voluntarily and to accept the confiscation of their assets.","sourceIds":["s89"]},{"id":"eichmann-trial-1961","year":1961,"endYear":1962,"date":"1961-04-11","title":"Eichmann trial","countries":["Israel","Argentina"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Adolf Eichmann, a central organizer of the deportations, was seized in Argentina by Israeli agents and tried in Jerusalem. Unlike earlier trials, it put survivors' testimony at center stage and raised global awareness of the Holocaust. He was executed on 1 June 1962.","sourceIds":["s100"]},{"id":"operation-yachin-1961","year":1961,"endYear":1964,"date":null,"title":"Operation Yachin from Morocco","countries":["Morocco","Israel"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Under a secret deal between Israel's Mossad and the Moroccan authorities, about 90,000 to 97,000 Moroccan Jews left for Israel between late 1961 and 1964. Morocco's Jewish population fell from about 162,000 at the start of 1961 to 53,000 by 1967.","sourceIds":["s91"]},{"id":"soviet-economic-trials-1961","year":1961,"endYear":1964,"date":null,"title":"Soviet \"economic crimes\" trials","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"After the USSR restored the death penalty for major economic crimes in 1961, Jews were disproportionately prosecuted and publicized. In 1962, 54% of those sentenced to death for economic crimes were Jews, although Jews were about 1% of the population.","sourceIds":["s99"]},{"id":"algeria-exodus-1962","year":1962,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Algerian Jews leave at independence","countries":["Algeria","France"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"As Algeria won independence, about 130,000 of its roughly 140,000 Jews, French citizens since 1870, left for France between late 1961 and summer 1962, and about 10,000 went to Israel.","sourceIds":["s73"]},{"id":"six-day-war-1967","year":1967,"endYear":null,"date":"1967-06-05","title":"Six-Day War","countries":["Israel","Egypt","Syria","Jordan"],"type":"war","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Israel fought Egypt, Syria and Jordan from 5 to 10 June 1967, capturing Sinai, Gaza, the West Bank including East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights. The war was followed by anti-Jewish riots in Libya and by an \"anti-Zionist\" campaign against Jews in Poland.","sourceIds":["s187","s92","s57"]},{"id":"libya-riots-1967","year":1967,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Anti-Jewish riots and evacuation in Libya","countries":["Libya","Italy"],"type":"pogrom","deaths":{"low":18,"high":18},"displaced":{"low":6000,"high":6000},"summary":"After the Six-Day War, rioters in Libya killed 18 Jews. With the king's consent, the Italian Navy helped evacuate more than 6,000 Jews to Rome within a month, forcing them to leave homes and businesses behind; only a few dozen Jews remained.","sourceIds":["s92"]},{"id":"poland-1968-campaign","year":1968,"endYear":1972,"date":null,"title":"Poland's \"anti-Zionist\" campaign","countries":["Poland"],"type":"expulsion","deaths":null,"displaced":{"low":13000,"high":25000},"summary":"Poland's Communist government branded Jews \"Zionists\" and enemies within, compiled a card index of citizens of Jewish origin and purged Jews from public jobs, including teaching posts in schools and universities. At least 13,000 people of Jewish origin emigrated from 1968 to 1972; one estimate puts the number at 25,000.","sourceIds":["s57","s101"]},{"id":"leningrad-hijacking-affair-1970","year":1970,"endYear":null,"date":"1970-06-15","title":"Leningrad hijacking affair","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"refusenik","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Sixteen refuseniks planned to seize a small plane near Leningrad to escape to Israel and were arrested by the KGB before boarding. Two were sentenced to death, later commuted to 15 years. International condemnation of the trial and wider crackdown led Moscow to allow more emigration.","sourceIds":["s103","s6","s102"]},{"id":"soviet-refuseniks-1970s","year":1970,"endYear":1989,"date":null,"title":"Soviet refuseniks and restricted emigration","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"refusenik","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"From the early 1970s, many Jews who applied to leave for Israel, often scientists and intellectuals, were refused for years, typically on grounds of access to state secrets. They lost jobs and homes and faced KGB harassment. Even so, more than 290,000 Jews and relatives emigrated between 1970 and 1989.","sourceIds":["s102","s38"]},{"id":"munich-olympics-massacre-1972","year":1972,"endYear":null,"date":"1972-09-05","title":"Munich Olympics massacre","countries":["West Germany"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":12,"high":12},"displaced":null,"summary":"Eight members of the Palestinian militant group Black September took members of the Israeli Olympic team hostage in Munich. Eleven Israeli athletes, coaches and officials were killed, along with a West German police officer.","sourceIds":["s106"]},{"id":"soviet-diploma-tax-1972","year":1972,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Soviet \"diploma tax\" on emigrants","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"legal-restriction","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"A Moscow decree of August 1972 required would-be emigrants to repay the state for their higher education before leaving, a heavy barrier for educated Jews. After US protests the Soviets said they would not enforce it, but it helped trigger the Jackson-Vanik amendment.","sourceIds":["s104"]},{"id":"maalot-massacre-1974","year":1974,"endYear":null,"date":"1974-05-15","title":"Ma'alot massacre","countries":["Israel"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":31,"high":31},"displaced":null,"summary":"Three militants of the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine crossed from Lebanon, killed several people on the way, and seized a school in Ma'alot where students on a school trip were staying. Twenty-five hostages, 22 of them children, were killed and 68 injured; 31 Israelis died in all.","sourceIds":["s188"]},{"id":"jackson-vanik-1974","year":1974,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Jackson-Vanik Amendment","countries":["United States","Soviet Union"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The US Trade Act of 1974 tied trade benefits for the Soviet Union and other non-market economies to freedom of emigration. The Jackson-Vanik Amendment became a key tool in removing barriers to Soviet Jewish emigration.","sourceIds":["s104"]},{"id":"un-zionism-resolution-1975","year":1975,"endYear":1991,"date":"1975-11-10","title":"UN resolution equating Zionism with racism","countries":["United Nations"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 3379, declaring Zionism a form of racism, by 72 votes to 35 with 32 abstentions. The Assembly revoked it on 16 December 1991 by 111 votes to 25.","sourceIds":["s115"]},{"id":"entebbe-hijacking-1976","year":1976,"endYear":null,"date":"1976-06-27","title":"Entebbe hijacking","countries":["Uganda","Israel"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":4,"high":4},"displaced":null,"summary":"Palestinian and German militants hijacked an Air France flight from Tel Aviv and took it to Entebbe, Uganda, holding 106 captives, mostly Israelis. Israeli commandos rescued 102. Three hostages died in the raid, a fourth, Dora Bloch, was murdered by Ugandan authorities, and the Israeli commander Yonatan Netanyahu was killed.","sourceIds":["s189"]},{"id":"sharansky-arrest-1977","year":1977,"endYear":1986,"date":"1977-03-15","title":"Refusenik Natan Sharansky imprisoned","countries":["Soviet Union"],"type":"refusenik","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The KGB arrested refusenik and human-rights activist Anatoly (Natan) Sharansky on charges including high treason; in 1978 he was sentenced to 13 years. An international campaign led by his wife, Avital, won his release in a prisoner exchange in February 1986.","sourceIds":["s105"]},{"id":"iran-elghanian-execution-1979","year":1979,"endYear":null,"date":"1979-05-09","title":"Iran executes Jewish leader Habib Elghanian","countries":["Iran"],"type":"other","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"Months after the Islamic Revolution, a revolutionary tribunal convicted Habib Elghanian, head of the Tehran Jewish Society, of charges including contacts with Israel and Zionism, and he was executed by firing squad. His death is seen as one reason about 75% of Iran's 80,000 Jews later left.","sourceIds":["s112"]},{"id":"rue-copernic-bombing-1980","year":1980,"endYear":null,"date":"1980-10-03","title":"Rue Copernic synagogue bombing","countries":["France"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":4,"high":4},"displaced":null,"summary":"A bomb exploded outside the synagogue on Rue Copernic in Paris during Sabbath services, bringing down its glass roof on worshipers. Four people were killed and 46 injured.","sourceIds":["s107"]},{"id":"vienna-synagogue-attack-1981","year":1981,"endYear":null,"date":"1981-08-29","title":"Vienna synagogue attack","countries":["Austria"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":2,"high":2},"displaced":null,"summary":"Two Abu Nidal Organization gunmen attacked a bar mitzvah service at Vienna's main synagogue with guns and grenades, killing two people and wounding 18.","sourceIds":["s108"]},{"id":"rue-des-rosiers-attack-1982","year":1982,"endYear":null,"date":"1982-08-09","title":"Jo Goldenberg restaurant attack","countries":["France"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":6,"high":6},"displaced":null,"summary":"Abu Nidal Organization gunmen carried out a bombing and shooting attack on Jo Goldenberg, a Jewish restaurant in Paris's Marais district, killing six people and injuring 22.","sourceIds":["s109"]},{"id":"rome-synagogue-attack-1982","year":1982,"endYear":null,"date":"1982-10-09","title":"Great Synagogue of Rome attack","countries":["Italy"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"Palestinian attackers threw grenades and fired submachine guns at families leaving Rome's Great Synagogue. Two-year-old Stefano Gaj Taché was killed and 37 people were injured.","sourceIds":["s110"]},{"id":"operation-moses-1984","year":1984,"endYear":1985,"date":"1984-11-21","title":"Operation Moses","countries":["Ethiopia","Sudan","Israel"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Israel secretly airlifted about 8,000 Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) who had fled to Sudan during civil war and famine, between November 1984 and January 1985.","sourceIds":["s113"]},{"id":"achille-lauro-hijacking-1985","year":1985,"endYear":null,"date":"1985-10-07","title":"Achille Lauro hijacking","countries":["Italy","Egypt"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"Four Palestinian Liberation Front militants hijacked the Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro off Egypt and murdered Leon Klinghoffer, a 69-year-old Jewish American passenger who used a wheelchair, throwing him overboard.","sourceIds":["s190"]},{"id":"neve-shalom-massacre-1986","year":1986,"endYear":null,"date":"1986-09-06","title":"Neve Shalom synagogue massacre","countries":["Turkey"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":22,"high":22},"displaced":null,"summary":"Gunmen opened fire during a Sabbath service at Istanbul's Neve Shalom synagogue, killing 22 people.","sourceIds":["s111"]},{"id":"soviet-exodus-1989","year":1989,"endYear":1991,"date":null,"title":"Mass emigration as the Soviet Union collapses","countries":["Soviet Union","Israel","United States"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"As exit restrictions fell away amid the failure of Gorbachev's reforms and fear stoked by nationalist groups such as Pamiat, which spread rumors of coming pogroms, some 380,000 Jews left the USSR between late 1989 and the end of 1991, about half again as many as in the whole of the 1970s.","sourceIds":["s38","s4"]},{"id":"operation-solomon-1991","year":1991,"endYear":null,"date":"1991-05-24","title":"Operation Solomon","countries":["Ethiopia","Israel"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"In a covert operation on 24 to 25 May 1991, nonstop flights by 35 Israeli aircraft carried 14,325 Ethiopian Jews from Addis Ababa to Israel in 36 hours.","sourceIds":["s114"]},{"id":"crown-heights-riot-1991","year":1991,"endYear":null,"date":"1991-08-19","title":"Crown Heights riot","countries":["United States"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"After a driver in a Hasidic leader's motorcade struck and killed seven-year-old Gavin Cato in Brooklyn, three days of rioting targeted Jewish residents and homes. Yankel Rosenbaum, a 29-year-old Jewish student from Australia, was surrounded by a group and fatally stabbed.","sourceIds":["s191"]},{"id":"israeli-embassy-bombing-1992","year":1992,"endYear":null,"date":"1992-03-17","title":"Bombing of Israel's embassy in Buenos Aires","countries":["Argentina"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":29,"high":29},"displaced":null,"summary":"A suicide truck bomb destroyed Israel's embassy in Buenos Aires, killing 29 people and wounding 242. A group linked to Iran claimed responsibility, and Argentina charged Hezbollah operative Imad Mughniyah.","sourceIds":["s118"]},{"id":"post-soviet-emigration-1990s","year":1992,"endYear":2000,"date":null,"title":"Post-Soviet emigration","countries":["Russia","Ukraine","Israel","United States"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Since 1990 about 1 million emigrants from the former Soviet Union have settled in Israel, and by 2000 another 300,000 had settled in the United States. Around 200,000 Jews left Russia alone between 1989 and 1993, leaving an older, shrinking community behind.","sourceIds":["s17","s116"]},{"id":"syria-exit-permits-1992","year":1992,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Syria lets its remaining Jews leave","countries":["Syria"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Beginning at Passover 1992, Syria granted exit permits to its remaining Jews, about 4,000 people in Damascus, Aleppo and Qamishli.","sourceIds":["s117"]},{"id":"amia-bombing-1994","year":1994,"endYear":null,"date":"1994-07-18","title":"AMIA Jewish community center bombing","countries":["Argentina"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":85,"high":85},"displaced":null,"summary":"A suicide bomber drove an explosives-laden van into the AMIA Jewish community center in Buenos Aires, killing 85 people and injuring more than 300, the deadliest terrorist attack in Argentina's history. Argentine prosecutors accused Iran of directing it and Hezbollah of carrying it out.","sourceIds":["s119"]},{"id":"second-intifada-2000","year":2000,"endYear":2005,"date":"2000-09-28","title":"Second Intifada","countries":["Israel","Palestinian territories"],"type":"war","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"A major Palestinian uprising against Israel and its occupation began in September 2000 and lasted until early 2005. Palestinian militant groups carried out about 138 suicide bombings, mostly against Israeli civilians, and Israel mounted large military operations. About 1,000 Israelis and 3,000 Palestinians, combatants and civilians, were killed.","sourceIds":["s193"]},{"id":"djerba-synagogue-bombing-2002","year":2002,"endYear":null,"date":"2002-04-11","title":"El Ghriba synagogue bombing, Djerba","countries":["Tunisia"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":19,"high":21},"displaced":null,"summary":"A suicide bomber acting for al-Qaeda detonated a truck of gas canisters at the ancient El Ghriba synagogue on the Tunisian island of Djerba. Accounts give 19 to 21 dead, including 14 German tourists, and more than 30 wounded.","sourceIds":["s120"]},{"id":"istanbul-synagogue-bombings-2003","year":2003,"endYear":null,"date":"2003-11-15","title":"Istanbul synagogue bombings","countries":["Turkey"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":26,"high":26},"displaced":null,"summary":"Truck bombs exploded minutes apart outside Istanbul's Beth Israel and Neve Shalom synagogues during Sabbath prayers. Twenty-eight people died, including the two bombers and six Jewish victims, and more than 300 were wounded.","sourceIds":["s121"]},{"id":"ilan-halimi-murder-2006","year":2006,"endYear":null,"date":"2006-01-21","title":"Kidnapping and murder of Ilan Halimi","countries":["France"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"A Paris gang calling itself the \"Gang of Barbarians\" kidnapped 23-year-old Ilan Halimi and held and tortured him for three weeks; he died of his injuries. Gang members said they targeted Jews because they believed all Jews were rich.","sourceIds":["s122"]},{"id":"mumbai-chabad-attack-2008","year":2008,"endYear":null,"date":"2008-11-26","title":"Attack on Mumbai's Chabad House","countries":["India"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":6,"high":6},"displaced":null,"summary":"During the coordinated terror attacks on Mumbai in November 2008, gunmen seized Nariman House, the city's Chabad Jewish center, and six of its occupants were killed, including Rabbi Gavriel Holtzberg and his wife, Rivka, who was six months pregnant.","sourceIds":["s135"]},{"id":"toulouse-school-shooting-2012","year":2012,"endYear":null,"date":"2012-03-19","title":"Ozar Hatorah school shooting, Toulouse","countries":["France"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":4,"high":4},"displaced":null,"summary":"A gunman who had already shot French soldiers days earlier opened fire at the Ozar Hatorah Jewish school in Toulouse, killing a rabbi and three children and wounding four others.","sourceIds":["s123"]},{"id":"brussels-jewish-museum-2014","year":2014,"endYear":null,"date":"2014-05-24","title":"Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting","countries":["Belgium"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":4,"high":4},"displaced":null,"summary":"A gunman who had spent more than a year in Syria opened fire at the Jewish Museum of Belgium in Brussels, killing four people. It is considered the first attack by the Islamic State in Europe.","sourceIds":["s124"]},{"id":"french-aliyah-2014","year":2014,"endYear":2015,"date":null,"title":"Record emigration of French Jews to Israel","countries":["France","Israel"],"type":"emigration-wave","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Amid a string of antisemitic incidents, a record of about 7,000 French Jews moved to Israel in 2014. A survey that May found 74% of French Jews had considered leaving France for Israel.","sourceIds":["s126"]},{"id":"hypercacher-siege-2015","year":2015,"endYear":null,"date":"2015-01-09","title":"Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege","countries":["France"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":4,"high":4},"displaced":null,"summary":"Days after the Charlie Hebdo shooting, a gunman who had pledged allegiance to the Islamic State attacked the Hypercacher kosher supermarket in eastern Paris, murdering four Jewish hostages and holding others captive until police stormed the store.","sourceIds":["s125"]},{"id":"copenhagen-synagogue-shooting-2015","year":2015,"endYear":null,"date":"2015-02-15","title":"Copenhagen synagogue shooting","countries":["Denmark"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"Hours after attacking a free-speech event, a gunman shot Dan Uzan, a 37-year-old Jewish volunteer guarding a bat mitzvah celebration at Copenhagen's Great Synagogue. Uzan died of his wounds.","sourceIds":["s134"]},{"id":"charlottesville-rally-2017","year":2017,"endYear":null,"date":"2017-08-11","title":"Unite the Right rally, Charlottesville","countries":["United States"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"White supremacists marched through Charlottesville, Virginia, chanting slogans including \"Jews will not replace us\". Armed men stood opposite a synagogue, whose members removed their Torah scrolls for safekeeping. A counter-protester, Heather Heyer, was killed when a rally participant drove into a crowd.","sourceIds":["s127"]},{"id":"mireille-knoll-murder-2018","year":2018,"endYear":null,"date":"2018-03-23","title":"Murder of Holocaust survivor Mireille Knoll","countries":["France"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"Mireille Knoll, an 85-year-old Jewish Holocaust survivor, was murdered in her Paris apartment.","sourceIds":["s133"]},{"id":"pittsburgh-synagogue-shooting-2018","year":2018,"endYear":null,"date":"2018-10-27","title":"Tree of Life synagogue shooting, Pittsburgh","countries":["United States"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":11,"high":11},"displaced":null,"summary":"An antisemitic gunman attacked the Tree of Life – Or L'Simcha synagogue in Pittsburgh during Sabbath services, killing 11 worshipers and wounding six. It was the deadliest attack on a Jewish community in American history.","sourceIds":["s128"]},{"id":"poway-synagogue-shooting-2019","year":2019,"endYear":null,"date":"2019-04-27","title":"Poway synagogue shooting","countries":["United States"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"On the last day of Passover, a gunman attacked the Chabad of Poway synagogue near San Diego, killing 60-year-old Lori Gilbert-Kaye and wounding the rabbi and others.","sourceIds":["s129"]},{"id":"halle-synagogue-attack-2019","year":2019,"endYear":null,"date":"2019-10-09","title":"Halle synagogue attack","countries":["Germany"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":2,"high":2},"displaced":null,"summary":"On Yom Kippur, a neo-Nazi gunman tried to force his way into the synagogue in Halle, Germany, where 51 people were praying; its locked door, recently upgraded, held. He then killed a woman passing by and a man at a nearby kebab shop.","sourceIds":["s132"]},{"id":"jersey-city-shooting-2019","year":2019,"endYear":null,"date":"2019-12-10","title":"Jersey City kosher supermarket shooting","countries":["United States"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":4,"high":4},"displaced":null,"summary":"Two attackers killed a police detective at a cemetery in Jersey City, New Jersey, then killed three people in a kosher supermarket: its owner, a rabbinical student shopping there and an employee. Officials said the attackers had planned a larger assault on the Jewish community.","sourceIds":["s130"]},{"id":"monsey-hanukkah-stabbing-2019","year":2019,"endYear":null,"date":"2019-12-28","title":"Monsey Hanukkah stabbing","countries":["United States"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"A man with a large knife burst into a Hanukkah party at a Hasidic rabbi's home in Monsey, New York, and stabbed guests. One victim, 72-year-old Josef Neumann, died of his wounds three months later.","sourceIds":["s131"]},{"id":"colleyville-hostage-crisis-2022","year":2022,"endYear":null,"date":"2022-01-15","title":"Colleyville synagogue hostage crisis","countries":["United States"],"type":"attack","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"A British gunman took a rabbi and three congregants hostage during Sabbath services at Congregation Beth Israel in Colleyville, Texas. One hostage was released after six hours; the other three escaped about 11 hours into the standoff, and the gunman was killed.","sourceIds":["s136"]},{"id":"adl-incidents-2022","year":2022,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"US antisemitic incidents in 2022","countries":["United States"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The Anti-Defamation League counted 3,698 antisemitic incidents of harassment, vandalism and assault in the United States in 2022.","sourceIds":["s138"]},{"id":"russia-ukraine-war-2022","year":2022,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Russia's invasion of Ukraine uproots Jewish communities","countries":["Ukraine","Russia","Israel"],"type":"war","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine displaced Jewish communities in both countries. Israel launched an operation to bring immigrants home, and by June 2022 more than 25,000 people had arrived from Ukraine, Russia, Belarus and Moldova.","sourceIds":["s137"]},{"id":"october-7-attack-2023","year":2023,"endYear":null,"date":"2023-10-07","title":"October 7 attack on Israel","countries":["Israel"],"type":"massacre","deaths":{"low":1195,"high":1200},"displaced":null,"summary":"Hamas-led militants from Gaza attacked southern Israel on the Simchat Torah holiday, killing about 1,200 people, most of them civilians, including 364 at the Nova music festival, and taking 251 hostages. Attackers struck 21 communities and military bases.","sourceIds":["s139","s140"]},{"id":"dagestan-airport-mob-2023","year":2023,"endYear":null,"date":"2023-10-29","title":"Mob storms Dagestan airport","countries":["Russia"],"type":"attack","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"An antisemitic mob stormed the airport in Makhachkala, in Russia's Dagestan region, searching for Israeli passengers arriving on a flight from Tel Aviv.","sourceIds":["s142"]},{"id":"adl-incidents-2023","year":2023,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"Record US antisemitic incidents in 2023","countries":["United States"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"ADL counted 8,873 antisemitic incidents in the US in 2023, a 140% rise from 2022 and then the highest since its records began in 1979. Of these, 5,204 came between October 7 and the end of the year, more than in all of 2022.","sourceIds":["s138"]},{"id":"gaza-war-2023","year":2023,"endYear":2025,"date":null,"title":"Gaza war","countries":["Israel","Gaza Strip"],"type":"war","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"The October 7 attack began a war in Gaza. Israel's offensive killed tens of thousands of Palestinians and destroyed much of the territory's infrastructure; a ceasefire took effect in October 2025. Antisemitic incidents surged around the world during the war.","sourceIds":["s141","s142","s138"]},{"id":"uk-cst-incidents-2023","year":2023,"endYear":2025,"date":null,"title":"Record antisemitic incidents in Britain","countries":["United Kingdom"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Britain's Community Security Trust logged a record 4,298 antisemitic incidents in 2023, then 3,556 in 2024 and 3,700 in 2025, the second-highest annual total it has recorded.","sourceIds":["s146"]},{"id":"dagestan-synagogue-attacks-2024","year":2024,"endYear":null,"date":"2024-06-23","title":"Attacks on synagogues and churches in Dagestan","countries":["Russia"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":22,"high":22},"displaced":null,"summary":"Gunmen attacked two synagogues, two Orthodox churches and a police post in Derbent and Makhachkala, killing 17 police officers and five civilians, including a priest. The Kele-Numaz synagogue in Derbent was almost completely destroyed by fire.","sourceIds":["s148","s142"]},{"id":"melbourne-synagogue-arson-2024","year":2024,"endYear":null,"date":"2024-12-06","title":"Arson attack on Melbourne's Adass Israel Synagogue","countries":["Australia"],"type":"attack","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"Attackers set fire to the Adass Israel Synagogue in Melbourne before dawn, injuring one congregant and badly damaging the building. Police treated it as terrorism, and in August 2025 Australia's prime minister said intelligence had linked Iran to the attack.","sourceIds":["s149"]},{"id":"adl-incidents-2024","year":2024,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"US antisemitic incidents reach record high","countries":["United States"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"ADL counted 9,354 antisemitic incidents in the United States in 2024, the highest number in the 46 years it has kept records and a 5% rise over 2023.","sourceIds":["s143"]},{"id":"fra-eu-survey-2024","year":2024,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"EU survey of Jewish experiences of antisemitism","countries":["European Union"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"An EU survey of almost 8,000 Jews, carried out in the first half of 2023 before October 7, found 80% felt antisemitism had grown in five years, 37% had been harassed for being Jewish in the past year, and 76% at least sometimes hid their Jewish identity.","sourceIds":["s147"]},{"id":"capital-jewish-museum-shooting-2025","year":2025,"endYear":null,"date":"2025-05-21","title":"Capital Jewish Museum shooting, Washington","countries":["United States"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":2,"high":2},"displaced":null,"summary":"A gunman killed Yaron Lischinsky and Sarah Milgrim, two Israeli embassy staff members, as they left an event at the Capital Jewish Museum in Washington, D.C. After his arrest he reportedly said he had acted for Gaza.","sourceIds":["s150"]},{"id":"boulder-attack-2025","year":2025,"endYear":null,"date":"2025-06-01","title":"Firebomb attack on Boulder hostage-solidarity walk","countries":["United States"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":1,"high":1},"displaced":null,"summary":"A man used a makeshift flamethrower and Molotov cocktails against a weekly walk in Boulder, Colorado, calling for the release of hostages held in Gaza. Several people were injured, and an 82-year-old woman later died of her injuries. He said he targeted the group as Zionists.","sourceIds":["s151"]},{"id":"manchester-synagogue-attack-2025","year":2025,"endYear":null,"date":"2025-10-02","title":"Heaton Park synagogue attack, Manchester","countries":["United Kingdom"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":2,"high":2},"displaced":null,"summary":"On Yom Kippur, an attacker drove into people and stabbed worshipers at the Heaton Park Hebrew Congregation in Manchester. Two men were killed, one of them by a stray police bullet while he held the synagogue doors shut; police shot the attacker dead.","sourceIds":["s152"]},{"id":"bondi-beach-hanukkah-attack-2025","year":2025,"endYear":null,"date":"2025-12-14","title":"Bondi Beach Hanukkah attack, Sydney","countries":["Australia"],"type":"attack","deaths":{"low":15,"high":15},"displaced":null,"summary":"Two gunmen, a father and son inspired by the Islamic State, opened fire on a Hanukkah celebration attended by about 1,000 people at Bondi Beach in Sydney, killing 15, including a 10-year-old girl, and injuring about 40. It was the first fatal attack targeting Jews in Australia.","sourceIds":["s153","s154"]},{"id":"adl-incidents-2025","year":2025,"endYear":null,"date":null,"title":"US antisemitic assaults hit a record in 2025","countries":["United States"],"type":"other","deaths":null,"displaced":null,"summary":"ADL counted 6,274 antisemitic incidents in the US in 2025, down from 2024 but the third-highest year on record. Assaults rose 4%, assaults with deadly weapons rose 39%, and three people were killed in antisemitic attacks.","sourceIds":["s144","s145"]}],"sources":[{"id":"s1","title":"Aliens Act 1905","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliens_Act_1905","year":null},{"id":"s2","title":"Russia: Russian Empire (Michael Stanislawski)","publisher":"YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe (YIVO Institute for Jewish Research)","url":"https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/25","year":2010},{"id":"s3","title":"Pale of Settlement (John D. 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League)","url":"https://www.adl.org/resources/press-release/adl-records-historic-high-antisemitic-assaults-and-attacks-deadly-weapons","year":2026},{"id":"s146","title":"Antisemitic Incidents Report 2025","publisher":"CST (Community Security Trust)","url":"https://cst.org.uk/news/blog/2026/02/11/antisemitic-incidents-report-2025","year":2026},{"id":"s147","title":"Jews in Europe still face high levels of antisemitism","publisher":"European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA)","url":"https://fra.europa.eu/en/news/2024/jews-europe-still-face-high-levels-antisemitism","year":2024},{"id":"s148","title":"2024 Dagestan attacks","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Dagestan_attacks","year":null},{"id":"s149","title":"2024 Melbourne synagogue attack","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Melbourne_synagogue_attack","year":null},{"id":"s150","title":"2025 Capital Jewish Museum shooting","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Capital_Jewish_Museum_shooting","year":null},{"id":"s151","title":"2025 Boulder fire attack","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Boulder_fire_attack","year":null},{"id":"s152","title":"2025 Manchester synagogue attack","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Manchester_synagogue_attack","year":null},{"id":"s153","title":"Bondi Beach shooting","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bondi_Beach_shooting","year":null},{"id":"s154","title":"At 6:47pm, Australia paused to remember victims of Bondi Beach shooting","publisher":"ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)","url":"https://www.abc.net.au/news/2025-12-21/bondi-beach-shooting-victim-commemoration-candle/106167470","year":2025},{"id":"s155","title":"May Laws","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_Laws","year":null},{"id":"s156","title":"First Aliyah","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Aliyah","year":null},{"id":"s157","title":"First Zionist Congress","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Zionist_Congress","year":null},{"id":"s158","title":"An Antisemitic Conspiracy: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/protocols-of-the-elders-of-zion","year":null},{"id":"s159","title":"Bialystok pogrom","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok_pogrom","year":null},{"id":"s160","title":"Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_for_the_Restoration_of_the_Professional_Civil_Service","year":null},{"id":"s161","title":"Nazi Book Burnings","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/book-burning","year":null},{"id":"s162","title":"Our History","publisher":"Cara (Council for At-Risk Academics)","url":"https://www.cara.ngo/who-we-are/our-history","year":null},{"id":"s163","title":"His finest hour: William Beveridge and the Academic Assistance Council","publisher":"LSE History blog, London School of Economics","url":"https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lsehistory/2021/04/28/his-finest-hour-william-beveridge-and-academic-assistance-council/","year":2021},{"id":"s164","title":"Council for At-Risk Academics","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_for_At-Risk_Academics","year":null},{"id":"s165","title":"Jewish scientists are dismissed from the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes (1933)","publisher":"Max-Planck-Gesellschaft","url":"https://www.mpg.de/946921/1933-jewish-scientists-dismissed-from-kaiser-wilhelm-institutes","year":null},{"id":"s166","title":"Przytyk pogrom","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przytyk_pogrom","year":null},{"id":"s167","title":"Ghetto benches","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghetto_benches","year":null},{"id":"s168","title":"University of Vienna","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Vienna","year":null},{"id":"s169","title":"Evian Conference","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89vian_Conference","year":null},{"id":"s170","title":"Kindertransport, 1938-1940","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/kindertransport-1938-40","year":null},{"id":"s171","title":"Voyage of the St. Louis","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/voyage-of-the-st-louis","year":null},{"id":"s172","title":"Warsaw Ghetto Sealed (timeline event)","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/timeline-event/holocaust/1939-1941/warsaw-ghetto-sealed","year":null},{"id":"s173","title":"Deportations to and from the Warsaw Ghetto","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/deportations-to-and-from-the-warsaw-ghetto","year":null},{"id":"s174","title":"Warsaw Ghetto","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto","year":null},{"id":"s175","title":"Pogroms","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/pogroms","year":null},{"id":"s176","title":"Iasi pogrom","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ia%C8%99i_pogrom","year":null},{"id":"s177","title":"The Lwow Pogrom of July 1, 1941","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-lwow-pogrom-of-july-1-1941","year":null},{"id":"s178","title":"Jedwabne pogrom","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedwabne_pogrom","year":null},{"id":"s179","title":"Chelmno (Kulmhof) Killing Center","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/chelmno","year":null},{"id":"s180","title":"Lithuania","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/lithuania","year":null},{"id":"s181","title":"Wannsee Conference and the \"Final Solution\"","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/wannsee-conference-and-the-final-solution","year":null},{"id":"s182","title":"Warsaw Ghetto Uprising","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/warsaw-ghetto-uprising","year":null},{"id":"s183","title":"Lublin/Majdanek Concentration Camp: Conditions","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/lublin-majdanek-concentration-camp-conditions","year":null},{"id":"s184","title":"Operation Harvest Festival","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Harvest_Festival","year":null},{"id":"s185","title":"Death Marches","publisher":"United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia","url":"https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/death-marches","year":null},{"id":"s186","title":"United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine","year":null},{"id":"s187","title":"Six-Day War","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-Day_War","year":null},{"id":"s188","title":"Ma'alot massacre","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%27alot_massacre","year":null},{"id":"s189","title":"Entebbe raid","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entebbe_raid","year":null},{"id":"s190","title":"Achille Lauro hijacking","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achille_Lauro_hijacking","year":null},{"id":"s191","title":"Crown Heights riot","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Heights_riot","year":null},{"id":"s192","title":"Antisemitism in Soviet mathematics","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitism_in_Soviet_mathematics","year":null},{"id":"s193","title":"Second Intifada","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Intifada","year":null}],"verification":{"status":"corrected","checkedAt":"2026-09-24","corrections":["s58 (USHMM 'Warsaw') now returns 404; replaced with the Wayback Machine copy of the same article (captured 2026-01-07), whose figures were re-checked.","warsaw-ghetto-1940: upper death figure 100,000 was unsupported; changed to 83,000-92,000 (USHMM: 83,000 dead of starvation and disease by mid-1942; Wikipedia: about 92,000 inside the ghetto).","operation-magic-carpet-1949: the 49,000 airlifted Yemenite Jews had been entered as deaths; moved to displaced, deaths set to null, start corrected to 16 December 1948 (year 1948).","aden-riots-1947: deaths corrected from 76-82 to 82 (76 was the number injured); added date 2 December 1947 and the 38 non-Jewish dead.","transnistria-1941-1944: USHMM's own articles disagree (150,000-250,000 vs 280,000-380,000); deaths widened to 150,000-380,000 and both figures stated; displaced removed because the source gives only an upper bound ('as many as 200,000').","rescue-of-danish-jews-1943: figures aligned with the cited USHMM page (more than 7,000 Jews and close to 700 relatives; about 500 deported to Theresienstadt); unsupported 'all but 51 survived' removed; date added.","death-marches-1944: removed the false claim that the marches started with the Auschwitz evacuation of January 1945; evacuations began after mid-1944.","kristallnacht-1938: men sent to camps corrected from about 30,000 to about 26,000 (USHMM); later death estimates restated as 1,000-2,000 per the cited article.","october-1905-pogroms: deaths were set to Odessa's 400 alone for a wave covering about 660 towns; range changed to 400-2,000 with the source's 2,000 estimate for 1903-1906 stated.","bialystok-pogrom-1906: deaths widened from 70-80 to 70-88 (Wikipedia now gives 81-88); perpetrators described as in the source (soldiers and Black Hundreds).","us-university-quotas-1922: removed unsupported claim that Jewish enrollment was held near 10% into the 1950s; replaced with sourced statements (quotas lasted into the 1950s; Yale medical school admitted 5 of about 200 Jewish applicants in 1935).","iasi-pogrom-1941: the 8,000 figure was misattributed to museum estimates; now attributed correctly; unsupported exact date removed.","protocols-published-1903: 'exposed as a forgery in 1920 and 1921' corrected to The Times of London exposure of 1921.","egypt-suez-expulsions-1956: 'hundreds' arrested corrected to about 1,000 imprisoned, per the cited source.","night-of-murdered-poets-1952: Lina Stern described as in the source (first woman academician; only survivor of 15 defendants).","ponary-1941: '70,000 to 100,000 victims in all' corrected to 'up to 100,000' as in the source.","kindertransport-1938: Poland removed from origins (not in the cited USHMM page).","djerba-synagogue-bombing-2002: deaths changed from 21 to 19-21 because the cited article's infobox and text disagree.","istanbul-synagogue-bombings-2003: deaths changed from 28 (which included the bombers) to 26 to follow the dataset's exclude-attackers convention.","munich-olympics-massacre-1972 (11 to 12) and maalot-massacre-1974 (25 to 31): deaths now count all people killed by the attackers, per the stated convention.","dagestan-synagogue-attacks-2024: deaths added (22: 17 police officers and 5 civilians, excluding attackers).","jersey-city-shooting-2019: 'co-owner' corrected to owner.","fra-eu-survey-2024: '13 countries' removed (not in the cited FRA release); survey period added.","post-soviet-emigration-1990s and the 1992-2022 era: the '1 million to Israel' figure is cumulative since 1990 per YIVO, not by 2000; wording fixed.","anschluss-1938, academic-assistance-council-1933, hungary-numerus-clausus-1920, nebi-musa-riots-1920, french-aliyah-2014, entebbe-hijacking-1976: wording tightened to match sources (192,000 prewar baseline; Nobel count phrasing; 1928 removal of the ethnic clause; 216 injured and dates; 'leaving France for Israel'; Netanyahu's death noted).","Dates fixed: leo-frank-case-1913 date set to the 1913 conviction (was the 1915 lynching date, inconsistent with year); lwow-pogrom-1918 date removed; mumbai-chabad-attack-2008 date added.","jewish-exodus-from-muslim-world: endYear 1970 changed to 1980 to include the Iranian exodus of 1979-80 described by the source.","Gap filled: added second-intifada-2000 (source s193), and s192 (Antisemitism in Soviet mathematics) added to the Soviet university-discrimination event to support its late-1940s start date and the 1978 admissions comparison.","Conventions clarified for hostage-takings and armed uprisings."],"unresolved":["Pogroms of the Russian Civil War: published estimates run from about 35,000 to 250,000 deaths; the dataset keeps 50,000 (YIVO's minimum credible figure) to 200,000.","Transnistria death toll remains uncertain because USHMM's own articles give different ranges.","Lwow 1918 and Iasi 1941 carry no exact date because the cited sources disagree (21-23 vs 22-24 November 1918; 26-30 vs 28-30 June 1941).","Kishinev pogrom start is kept as 19 April 1903 (6 April Old Style plus 13 days, as in Wikipedia); YIVO prints 18 April.","s58 now points to an archived copy because the live USHMM Warsaw article returns 404.","s146 (CST 2025 report) answers HEAD requests with 404 but serves the full page to normal GET requests; its figures were verified.","Many events rely on Wikipedia; stronger scholarly sources would help for US university quotas, the Djerba and Istanbul tolls, and the Soviet university discrimination statistics."]}},"factors":{"intro":"Scholars who study why Jews are so over-represented among Nobel laureates, and in science and scholarship generally, have proposed many explanations, and none works on its own. The explanations with the most support are historical and social: a religious culture that expected men to read, centuries of urban and commercial life, the timing of legal equality, migration to the countries where modern science was concentrated, heavy family investment in schooling, and the effects of both exclusion and new opportunity. These causes overlap and reinforce one another, and several are hard to test. The pattern has also changed over time and differs from place to place, which points to circumstances rather than any fixed trait. Each explanation below comes with its evidence and the main objections. Genetic theories have been proposed but are widely disputed; they are covered separately under contested explanations.","introSourceIds":["s26","s27","s3"],"factors":[{"id":"literacy-tradition","title":"A religious tradition of reading and study","summary":"For about two thousand years, Jewish religious practice expected boys to learn to read the Torah and men to keep studying it. Economic historians Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein argue that this rule, which became a compulsory duty after the Romans destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE, gave Jewish men unusually high literacy centuries before mass schooling spread elsewhere. Reading and writing paid off in trade, crafts, finance and medicine, and helped move Jews into urban, skilled work. If this is right, habits of schooling and close argument over texts were already in place when European universities opened more widely to Jews in the nineteenth century. Because traditional study was overwhelmingly religious rather than scientific, it is best read as a background condition, not a direct cause of scientific discovery.","evidence":["Pew Research Center traces the norm to a decree issued around 65 CE, attributed to the high priest Joshua ben Gamla, that fathers send their young sons to school to learn to read the Torah; after the Temple's destruction in 70 CE it became a compulsory religious duty for all Jewish fathers.","Botticini and Eckstein argue that this literacy rule, rather than outside restrictions, explains why Jews moved out of farming into urban, skilled occupations in the eighth and ninth centuries.","Hungary's 1910 census recorded 87% of Jews as literate, a figure historian Mária Kovács says understates the reality because people who read only Hebrew were counted as illiterate; about 31% of all Hungarians over age six could not read.","Economist Carmel Chiswick, reviewing the book for the Economic History Association in 2013, called its quantitative economic-history analysis very convincing.","In Pew's 2016 global study, Jewish adults averaged 13.4 years of schooling, more than any other major religious group, and 61% held post-secondary degrees."],"evidenceSourceIds":[["s10"],["s4","s5"],["s13"],["s6"],["s11","s42"]],"counterpoints":["Traditional study was overwhelmingly religious, not scientific. Pew notes that most education of Jewish boys stayed primarily religious until the early nineteenth century, when the Jewish Enlightenment (Haskalah) began pressing to add secular subjects such as the natural sciences, and Veblen argued in 1919 that learning kept within the traditional curriculum had added little to modern science.","Historians including Robert Chazan and Phillip Ackerman-Lieberman criticized Botticini and Eckstein's reading of rabbinic sources and population figures, and questioned using one explanation for so many centuries.","The historical rule was about fathers educating sons, so for most of this history it did not give girls the same formal schooling.","Jews who share the same tradition differ widely in schooling (in Pew's 2016 study, about 14.7 years on average in the United States versus 12.0 in Israel), so present-day circumstances matter as well."],"counterpointSourceIds":[["s10","s1"],["s7","s8","s9"],["s10"],["s11"]],"strength":"moderate","sourceIds":["s1","s4","s5","s6","s7","s8","s9","s10","s11","s13","s42"]},{"id":"urban-occupations","title":"Centuries of urban life and skilled work","summary":"By the early twentieth century, almost all Jews in Eastern Europe and North America worked in urban, skilled occupations such as trade, crafts and the professions, according to data compiled by the economist Simon Kuznets. For centuries, Christian guilds in much of Europe had no place for Jews, and traditional accounts stress that many places also barred Jews from owning land, steering them toward commerce and moneylending. The result was a population concentrated in towns, used to literacy, numbers and contracts, and close to schools. When modern universities and professions expanded, city dwellers were far better placed to use them than the rural peasants who made up most of Europe's population. In Hungary, historian Mária Kovács shows, much of the apparent Jewish over-representation in the graduate professions shrinks when Jews are compared with other city dwellers rather than with the whole country.","evidence":["Kuznets found that 95 to 99% of Jews in Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union and the United States in the early twentieth century worked in urban, skilled occupations, as summarized by Botticini and Eckstein.","The Encyclopaedia Judaica describes the guilds of medieval Europe as thoroughly Christian bodies in which Jews had no place; where Jewish crafts did flourish, as in Poland-Lithuania and Bohemia-Moravia, Jews often formed their own guilds in the face of opposition from Christian ones.","Earlier historians such as Cecil Roth and Israel Abrahams argued that exclusionary laws, including bans on owning land in many places, pushed Jews into towns and commerce.","In Hungary, Kovács notes, a ban on Jewish land ownership that lasted almost until emancipation steered Jewish businessmen toward retail trade, modern industry and banking.","In Hungary around 1920, three-quarters of Jews lived in towns while most non-Jews lived in villages. Kovács shows that, measured against the urban population (about 13% Jewish), the Jewish share of graduate professionals (13.4%) was not far out of line.","Sociologist Stephen Steinberg argued that Jewish immigrants to America did well partly because they arrived with urban and industrial skills; about three-quarters of Jews in the Russian Pale of Settlement lived in urban areas.","Historian Yuri Slezkine's The Jewish Century describes Jews as a classic urban, literate minority whose skills became what modern economies demand of everyone."],"evidenceSourceIds":[["s5"],["s15"],["s5"],["s13"],["s13"],["s16"],["s17"]],"counterpoints":["Botticini and Eckstein argue that restrictions cannot explain the original shift: Jews left farming in the eighth and ninth centuries in the Muslim world, where no laws stopped them from owning land.","Urban residence does not explain everything. Even compared with city dwellers, Jews in 1920 Hungary were heavily over-represented in some professions, making up about 46% of doctors and 49% of lawyers.","Reviewers have challenged both Steinberg and Slezkine: a 1981 Commentary review said Steinberg drew a false line between culture and skills, and Hillel Halkin argued Slezkine's framework is too broad to explain specific outcomes."],"counterpointSourceIds":[["s5"],["s13"],["s16","s18"]],"strength":"strong","sourceIds":["s5","s13","s15","s16","s17","s18"]},{"id":"migration-refugees","title":"Migration to the centres of science, and the refugee brain drain","summary":"Two great migrations moved Jewish talent to Britain and, above all, the United States. Between 1881 and 1924, more than 2.5 million East European Jews left their homelands, many of them for the United States. Then, from 1933, Nazi Germany expelled Jewish scholars from its universities, and many rebuilt their careers in Britain and America. Quotas in Tsarist Russia and in Hungary after 1920 had already pushed thousands of Jewish students to study abroad. The refugee scholars of the 1930s included many already accomplished researchers; how selective the earlier mass migration was is less clear. Economists have measured the result: the émigrés boosted invention in their new homes, while the students they left behind in Germany fared measurably worse.","evidence":["The Library of Congress, describing Jewish immigration to America, says over 2.5 million East European Jews left their homelands between 1881 and 1924, driven by persecution and poverty; those who came settled mainly in cities.","After Germany's 1933 civil service law, an early study counted 1,111 dismissals from German universities and technical universities in 1933-34, about 15% of all university researchers, at a time when Jews were about 0.7% of Germany's population. In mathematics, an estimated 79% of those dismissed were Jewish; the law also removed political opponents.","Britain's Academic Assistance Council (today Cara), founded in 1933, helped about 2,000 refugee scholars between 1933 and 1939; 16 later won Nobel Prizes, among them Ernst Chain, Hans Krebs, Max Born, Max Perutz and Hans Bethe.","In the United States, patenting by American inventors rose by about 31% in the chemistry fields where German-Jewish émigrés worked, mainly because the émigrés drew new researchers into those fields.","Russia's 1887 quotas capped Jewish enrolment in secondary and higher education at 3-10% and sent thousands to universities in Switzerland, Germany and France. Hungary's 1920 law pushed several thousand more abroad; Kovács counts Eugene Wigner, John von Neumann, Leo Szilard and Edward Teller among that generation of émigrés."],"evidenceSourceIds":[["s19"],["s21"],["s22"],["s20"],["s14","s13"]],"counterpoints":["Migration moved talent more than it created it. Waldinger notes that well-known German mathematicians found posts abroad most easily, while older and less famous scholars struggled, so those who landed well were a selected group.","The mass migration from Eastern Europe was not necessarily selective: Chad and Brym, citing earlier research, note that it was not only the most educated Jews who emigrated, and suggest that pressure to excel may help explain success among the children of less-educated immigrants.","Children of immigrants from nearly every sending country have had higher upward mobility in the United States than children of US-born parents, so the drive of immigrant families is not unique to Jews.","These migrations were driven by persecution, not opportunity. Waldinger records that most dismissed mathematicians who stayed in Germany died in concentration camps or took their own lives."],"counterpointSourceIds":[["s21"],["s27"],["s23"],["s21"]],"strength":"strong","sourceIds":["s13","s14","s19","s20","s21","s22","s23","s27"]},{"id":"education-investment","title":"Heavy family investment in education","summary":"Jewish families, especially immigrant families, have tended to invest unusually heavily in their children's schooling. In Hungary in 1910, Jewish men were more than four times as likely as Catholic or Protestant men to hold a secondary-school diploma. In the United States, millions of immigrants' children and grandchildren passed through New York City's public schools, whose high schools had produced 40 Nobel laureates by 2012, 35 of them Jewish. In 2020, American Jews were about twice as likely as US adults overall to hold a college degree. Economists describe this as investment in child quality: families putting more resources into each child's education. Sociologist Paul Burstein's review concludes that this human-capital story explains much of Jewish educational and economic success in the United States, though not all of it.","evidence":["In Hungary in 1910, 18.2% of Jewish men aged 19 or older had a secondary-school diploma, compared with 4.2% of Catholic and 3.9% of Protestant men.","The Christian Socialist politician Sándor Giesswein observed in 1917 that Hungarian Jewish children were sent to school whether their fathers were ragpickers or bankers, while among Christians it was mostly the sons of the upper classes; he attributed the gap mainly to urbanization and access, not to talent.","Before the First World War, in 1910, about 85% of Hungarian Jewish young people with a secondary-school diploma went on to higher education.","Pew's 2020 survey found nearly 60% of US Jewish adults were college graduates and 28% held a postgraduate degree, compared with about 30% and 11% of all US adults.","Economist Barry Chiswick found that across US racial and ethnic groups, those with more schooling also earned more from each year of it, a pattern he judged consistent with families investing heavily in each child rather than with discrimination or a simple taste for schooling.","A 2012 count found that 40 graduates of New York City public high schools had won Nobel Prizes, 35 of them Jewish, most the children or grandchildren of East European immigrants.","Sociologist Paul Burstein's review concluded that human-capital factors account for much of Jewish success but leave much unexplained."],"evidenceSourceIds":[["s13"],["s13"],["s13"],["s12"],["s24"],["s38"],["s26"]],"counterpoints":["This describes what families did rather than why; Burstein notes that the other proposed causes, such as distinctive Jewish values, marginality and social capital, have hardly been tested.","The gap has narrowed. Chiswick found the Jewish share of new US PhDs falling among men from the 1950s onward, and Chad and Brym describe an apparent decline in Jewish intellectual attainment in Western societies.","Immigrant children in general out-perform children of US-born parents in upward mobility, so part of this pattern is shared by many immigrant groups."],"counterpointSourceIds":[["s26"],["s25","s27"],["s23"]],"strength":"strong","sourceIds":["s12","s13","s23","s24","s25","s26","s27","s38"]},{"id":"marginal-outsider","title":"The marginal outsider","summary":"In 1919 the economist Thorstein Veblen proposed that Jews who stepped outside their traditional community, without being fully accepted by Christian society, gained unusual freedom of mind. Belonging fully to neither world, he argued, they were less bound by either one's assumptions and more open to the skepticism that original science requires. Later scholars have tested versions of this idea. Historian Shulamit Volkov found that German Jewish scientists blocked from mainstream careers often worked at the edges of their disciplines and at smaller universities, positions she argued favoured original research. Sociologists still list marginality as one of the main candidate explanations. But it is hard to measure, and some leading historians think it explains relatively little.","evidence":["Veblen's 1919 essay credited the creative Jewish scholar's position as a 'hyphenate' member of the gentile world of learning, and the skepticism it fostered, for Jewish prominence in modern science.","Tiziana Foresti argues that Veblen's essay is a serious analytical argument consistent with his institutional economics, not merely a reflection of his own outsider status, and that Veblen turned antisemitic arguments about a 'Jewish type' in a pro-Jewish direction.","Volkov's study of 40 highly successful German Jewish scientists argued that their position at the margins, both geographically and in their specialties, made original breakthroughs possible.","Burstein lists marginality as one of four main families of explanation for Jewish success in the United States."],"evidenceSourceIds":[["s1"],["s2"],["s28"],["s26"]],"counterpoints":["Historian David Hollinger concluded that relatively little of Jewish pre-eminence can be explained by the Veblen thesis: Veblen ignored Jewish literacy and economic position, and the thesis fits poorly with the most intellectually successful Jewish community in diaspora history, that of the United States.","Volkov's own follow-up study, comparing 12 Jewish and 12 equally successful non-Jewish scientists, found some of her earlier conclusions needed qualifying.","Veblen's essay uses the racial vocabulary of its day and does not rule out inherited traits, even though its argument rests on social position.","Burstein notes that marginality has been discussed far more than it has been tested."],"counterpointSourceIds":[["s3"],["s28"],["s1"],["s26"]],"strength":"contested","sourceIds":["s1","s2","s3","s26","s28"]},{"id":"emancipation-timing","title":"Legal equality arrived just before modern science took off","summary":"Most Central European Jews gained full legal equality only in the 1860s and 1870s: in Austria-Hungary in 1867 and across the new German Empire by 1871, long after France led the way in 1791. From the late eighteenth century, the Jewish Enlightenment had also pressed to add secular subjects, including the natural sciences, to Jewish education. The result was a large, urban, literate group entering secular schools and universities in the decades just before the first Nobel Prizes in 1901. By the early twentieth century, Jews made up roughly a quarter of university students in Budapest and Vienna and about 30% in Berlin. Volkov found that newcomers often built careers in specialties that seemed marginal at the time, which she calls creative niches.","evidence":["Legal equality came in France in 1791, in Austria-Hungary with the constitution of 1867, and in the North German Confederation in 1869, extended to the whole German Empire in 1871. Britain lifted the Christian oath that barred Jews from Parliament in 1858. Tsarist Russia did not grant equality; Russian Jews received it only in 1917.","Pew notes that most education of Jewish boys stayed primarily religious until the early nineteenth century, when the Jewish Enlightenment began promoting secular subjects such as European literature and the natural sciences.","Jews were 24-25% of Hungary's university students in 1910-14; in 1920 they were 5.9% of the country's population. Kovács also notes that Jews were about 9% of Vienna's residents but about a quarter of its students, and about 5% of Berlin's residents but about 30% of its students.","The Nobel Prizes were first awarded in 1901, a generation after Central European emancipation.","Volkov found that antisemitism pushed German Jewish scientists toward subdisciplines that seemed marginal at the time, a position she argues helped them make breakthroughs."],"evidenceSourceIds":[["s29"],["s10"],["s13"],["s30"],["s28"]],"counterpoints":["The argument rests mainly on chronology. Emancipation arrived together with urbanization and migration, and researchers note how little the non-economic explanations have been directly tested.","Equality was fragile and uneven: Tsarist Russia never granted it, new quotas followed in Russia in 1887 and Hungary in 1920, and Nazi Germany began reversing it in 1933."],"counterpointSourceIds":[["s26"],["s29","s14","s13","s21"]],"strength":"moderate","sourceIds":["s10","s13","s14","s21","s26","s28","s29","s30"]},{"id":"mentorship-networks","title":"Mentorship lineages and scientific networks","summary":"Nobel-level science is handed down through teachers and laboratories. Sociologist Harriet Zuckerman found that more than half of the US laureates up to 1972 had trained or worked under an older laureate, and a recent study finds that nearly all laureates in physics, chemistry, medicine and economics belong to a single academic family tree. Once Jewish scientists were established in leading departments, first in Central Europe and later in the United States, they trained the next generation, and success tended to cluster. The expulsions of 1933 show the reverse: when German universities lost strong professors, their students' careers suffered. Networks help explain why success persisted once a group gained entry to top institutions.","evidence":["Zuckerman found that 48 of the 92 laureates who did their prize-winning work in the United States by 1972 had worked as students, postdoctoral fellows or junior colleagues of older laureates.","Economist Richard Tol traced 696 of 727 laureates in physics, chemistry, medicine and economics to one academic family tree.","A study of nearly 40,000 scientists found that training under a mentor who later won a major prize was associated with a two- to four-fold higher chance of the protégé winning prizes, joining the National Academy of Sciences or becoming a superstar, compared with matched protégés.","Waldinger found that the 1933-34 dismissals hurt PhD students left behind: better faculty raised students' chances of publishing in top journals and of becoming full professors.","Physicist Melvin Schwartz, a Bronx High School of Science graduate, recalled that Columbia's physics department, largely built by I. I. Rabi, housed six pieces of Nobel-winning work in the thirteen years after he arrived in 1949 and hosted about half a dozen more future laureates as students or postdoctoral researchers."],"evidenceSourceIds":[["s31","s32"],["s33"],["s34"],["s21"],["s45"]],"counterpoints":["Mentorship effects apply to all laureates, so they amplify whatever brought a group into top laboratories rather than explaining the initial gap.","Networks also excluded Jews: Volkov found German Jewish scientists' careers often blocked, and elite American universities limited Jewish admissions for decades.","Tol finds that the concentration of laureates within academic family trees has fallen over time."],"counterpointSourceIds":[["s31","s34"],["s28","s36"],["s33"]],"strength":"moderate","sourceIds":["s21","s28","s31","s32","s33","s34","s36","s45"]},{"id":"discrimination-push","title":"Discrimination that closed some doors and pushed toward others","summary":"Exclusion shaped where Jewish talent went. In Central Europe, Jews were under-represented in state service and often blocked from senior university chairs, so many turned to the independent professions and to research specialties that seemed marginal at the time. In Hungary in 1920, Jews held under 5% of graduate posts in the civil service, yet nearly half of the country's doctors and lawyers were Jewish. In the United States, economist Barry Chiswick argues that discrimination against Jews in salaried professional work eased earlier in university teaching than in other sectors after the Second World War, drawing Jews into academic careers. Discrimination was also a direct barrier, though: quotas limited Jewish students in Russia, in Hungary and at elite American universities.","evidence":["Volkov found that antisemitism often blocked German Jewish scientists' careers, and that even equally distinguished Jewish scientists tended to end up in less prestigious, less powerful posts than their non-Jewish peers.","In 1920 Hungary, Jews held 4.9% of civil-service graduate posts but made up about 46% of doctors and 49% of lawyers.","Chiswick's analysis of US PhDs from 1950 to 2004 is consistent with discrimination against Jews easing earlier in college and university teaching than in other salaried professions.","From the 1920s, Harvard, Yale and Princeton adopted 'character'-based admissions largely to limit Jewish enrolment; Yale held Jews to about 10-12% of each entering class until the early 1960s.","Russia's 1887 rules limited Jewish students to 10% of places in the Pale of Settlement, 5% elsewhere and 3% in St Petersburg and Moscow."],"evidenceSourceIds":[["s28"],["s13"],["s25"],["s35","s36"],["s14"]],"counterpoints":["The same prejudice that closed other careers also closed many academic ones, through student quotas and blocked promotions, so the net push toward science is hard to measure.","Chiswick's evidence covers the United States after 1950 and identifies Jews by distinctive surnames, which is only an approximation."],"counterpointSourceIds":[["s28","s14","s36"],["s25"]],"strength":"moderate","sourceIds":["s13","s14","s25","s28","s35","s36"]},{"id":"research-centres","title":"Living near the great research centres","summary":"Jews lived disproportionately in the large cities that housed leading universities and laboratories. In the early twentieth century, nearly a quarter of Budapest's population was Jewish, and Jews made up roughly a quarter of university students in Vienna and about 30% in Berlin. The 1933 purge revealed how many Jewish scholars worked in top German departments: Göttingen, one of the country's two leading centres of mathematics, lost almost 60% of its mathematics faculty. After mass migration, New York City's public schools and universities such as Columbia became a pipeline into American science. Because prize-winning research comes mainly from universities in North America and Europe, living close to those institutions mattered.","evidence":["Nearly a quarter of Budapest's population was Jewish, 25-28% of its university students were Jewish, and about 85% of Hungary's university students studied in the capital.","Waldinger reports that the 1933-34 dismissals hit the best German mathematics departments hardest: Göttingen lost almost 60% of its mathematics faculty and Berlin almost 40%.","Of the 37 Jewish laureates educated in New York City (as of 2012), 10 earned bachelor's degrees at Columbia; the article attributes this clustering to Harvard, Princeton and Yale accepting only a small Jewish presence until the 1960s.","East European Jewish immigrants to the United States settled mainly in cities, clustering near downtown districts.","About 70% of the institutions that produced Nobel-winning work are universities, and North America and Europe each have more than 300 such institutions."],"evidenceSourceIds":[["s13"],["s21"],["s38"],["s19"],["s37"]],"counterpoints":["Concentration in cities is largely a product of other factors on this list, such as urban history and migration, rather than a separate cause.","The clustering of prize-producing institutions has eased slightly over the past decade.","The New York figures come from a 2012 newspaper count, not a peer-reviewed tally."],"counterpointSourceIds":[["s13","s19"],["s37"],["s38"]],"strength":"moderate","sourceIds":["s13","s19","s21","s37","s38"]},{"id":"first-generation-opportunity","title":"Being the first generation through newly opened doors","summary":"Sociologists Jordan Chad and Robert Brym propose that a group's intellectual attainment peaks when it is the first generation to enjoy wide educational opportunity and also has the resources to compete for it. Applied to Jewish history, the idea fits several turning points: emancipation in Europe, and the easing of discrimination in America after the Second World War, opened doors to families who were already urban and schooled. The theory also predicts decline as that advantage fades and other groups gain the same openings, which studies of US doctorates and Toronto medical graduates suggest is happening. Unlike explanations based on fixed traits or slow-changing culture, this one can account for why Jewish over-representation has risen and fallen within a few generations.","evidence":["Chad and Brym examined a century of change in the ethnic make-up of University of Toronto medical graduates and presented the pattern as consistent with their opportunity theory and inconsistent with the genetic and cultural theories, whose causes change too slowly to explain rapid rises and declines.","Chiswick found the Jewish share of new US PhDs began falling among men in the 1950s, and among women after about 1979.","Harvard, Yale and Princeton moved toward more open admissions in the 1960s and 1970s, although parts of the older system survived.","In a 2008 essay, cultural historian Sander Gilman attributed the recent fall in Jewish applications to US medical schools to American Jews' middle-class career choices rather than to any change in ability."],"evidenceSourceIds":[["s27"],["s25"],["s36"],["s41"]],"counterpoints":["Chad and Brym say their evidence is consistent with the theory but that a rigorous test is beyond the scope of their study.","One Canadian medical school may not represent Nobel-level science as a whole.","Chad and Brym note that any decline would not yet show among Nobel laureates, who are usually honoured late in life for work done when young, so the theory's prediction for the prizes themselves cannot yet be checked."],"counterpointSourceIds":[["s27"],["s27"],["s27"]],"strength":"moderate","sourceIds":["s25","s27","s36","s41"]}],"contested":[{"title":"Genetic selection hypotheses","summary":"In 2006, Gregory Cochran, Jason Hardy and Henry Harpending proposed that medieval Ashkenazi Jews, concentrated in literate, specialized trades, underwent natural selection for verbal and mathematical ability, and that inherited diseases common among Ashkenazim were side effects of that selection. The idea drew wide attention but is widely disputed. Genetic studies in 2003 and 2010 found most of these diseases better explained by chance (genetic drift) in a small founding population, and a 2014 genome study confirmed a recent bottleneck of about 350 people, which the 2006 paper had doubted. Cultural historian Sander Gilman argues the claim rests on socially constructed categories of race and intelligence, and sociologists note that attainment has shifted too quickly for a genetic cause.","sourceIds":["s39","s43","s40","s44","s41","s27"]},{"title":"A timeless Jewish love of learning","summary":"A popular explanation holds that Jewish culture has always prized learning above all else, and that this value alone explains modern achievement. Scholars are cautious. Values are hard to measure and change slowly, yet Jewish achievement has varied sharply across countries and decades. Sociologist Stephen Steinberg argued that immigrant success owed more to the urban and industrial skills Jews brought from Europe than to cultural values, and Chad and Brym argue that changing opportunity fits their data better than slow-changing culture. Burstein notes that explanations based on distinctive Jewish values have hardly been tested. Most researchers treat religious culture as one ingredient interacting with history, not a self-sufficient cause.","sourceIds":["s16","s27","s26"]},{"title":"Jews as the model modern 'Mercurians'","summary":"Historian Yuri Slezkine argues that Jews were Europe's archetypal 'service nomads': urban, literate, entrepreneurial outsiders whose skills became what everyone needed once societies modernized, which is why they prospered as modernity spread. The book is widely discussed, but its sweeping framework is contested. Reviewer Hillel Halkin argued that the categories are too broad to explain specific outcomes, and that the claim cannot be tested against what other trading minorities would have achieved in the same place.","sourceIds":["s17","s18"]}],"sources":[{"id":"s1","title":"The Intellectual Pre-Eminence of Jews in Modern Europe (Thorstein Veblen), Political Science Quarterly 34(1): 33-42","publisher":"Political Science Quarterly, via JSTOR Early Journal Content / Internet Archive","url":"https://archive.org/details/jstor-2141518","year":1919},{"id":"s2","title":"Thorstein Veblen on the Intellectual Pre-eminence of Jews: Beyond the Myth of Veblen's 'Social Marginality' (Tiziana Foresti), Research in the History of Economic Thought and Methodology 32: 63-81","publisher":"Emerald Publishing","url":"https://doi.org/10.1108/S0743-415420140000032003","year":2014},{"id":"s3","title":"Why Are Jews Preeminent in Science and Scholarship? The Veblen Thesis Reconsidered (David A. Hollinger), Aleph 2: 145-163","publisher":"Aleph: Historical Studies in Science and Judaism (Indiana University Press)","url":"https://doi.org/10.2979/ale.2002.-.2.145","year":2002},{"id":"s4","title":"The Chosen Few: How Education Shaped Jewish History, 70-1492 (Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein)","publisher":"Princeton University Press","url":"https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691144870/the-chosen-few","year":2012},{"id":"s5","title":"Jewish Occupational Selection: Education, Restrictions, or Minorities? (Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein), Journal of Economic History 65(4)","publisher":"Journal of Economic History (author copy, Tel Aviv University)","url":"https://www.tau.ac.il/~eckstein/pdf/JEHdecember2005.pdf","year":2005},{"id":"s6","title":"Review of The Chosen Few (Carmel U. Chiswick), January 2013","publisher":"EH.Net (Economic History Association)","url":"https://eh.net/book_reviews/the-chosen-few-how-education-shaped-jewish-history-70-1492/","year":2013},{"id":"s7","title":"The Chosen Few (book): reception section, quoting the reviews by Robert Chazan and Phillip Ackerman-Lieberman","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chosen_Few_(book)","year":null},{"id":"s8","title":"Review of The Chosen Few (Phillip I. Ackerman-Lieberman), Journal of Economic History 73(1): 310-311","publisher":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/chosen-few-how-education-shaped-jewish-history-701492-by-maristella-botticini-and-zvi-eckstein-princeton-nj-princeton-university-press-2012-pp-xvii-323-3950-cloth-3950-ebook/BD7E0860DB66E4C7E4128212109884D3","year":2013},{"id":"s9","title":"Review of The Chosen Few (Robert Chazan), American Historical Review 119(1): 229-230","publisher":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/ahr/119.1.229","year":2014},{"id":"s10","title":"Religion and Education Around the World, chapter 7: How religion may affect educational attainment: scholarly theories and historical background","publisher":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2016/12/13/how-religion-may-affect-educational-attainment-scholarly-theories-and-historical-background/","year":2016},{"id":"s11","title":"Religion and Education Around the World: Jewish educational attainment","publisher":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2016/12/13/jewish-educational-attainment/","year":2016},{"id":"s12","title":"Jewish Americans in 2020: Jewish demographics","publisher":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/05/11/jewish-demographics/","year":2021},{"id":"s13","title":"The Beginnings of Anti-Jewish Legislation: The 1920 Numerus Clausus Law in Hungary (Mária M. Kovács), open-access edition","publisher":"Central European University Press","url":"https://real.mtak.hu/201096/1/the_beginnings_of_anti-jewish_legislation.pdf","year":2023},{"id":"s14","title":"Numerus Clausus (Encyclopaedia Judaica entry)","publisher":"Jewish Virtual Library / Encyclopaedia Judaica (Gale)","url":"https://jewishvirtuallibrary.org/numerus-clausus","year":2007},{"id":"s15","title":"Guilds (Encyclopaedia Judaica entry)","publisher":"Jewish Virtual Library / Encyclopaedia Judaica (Gale)","url":"https://jewishvirtuallibrary.org/guilds-jewish-virtual-library","year":2008},{"id":"s16","title":"Review of The Ethnic Myth by Stephen Steinberg (unsigned), August 1981","publisher":"Commentary","url":"https://www.commentary.org/articles/commentary-bk/the-ethnic-myth-by-stephen-steinberg/","year":1981},{"id":"s17","title":"Review of The Jewish Century by Yuri Slezkine (Carol Poll)","publisher":"Jewish Book Council","url":"https://www.jewishbookcouncil.org/book/the-jewish-century","year":2012},{"id":"s18","title":"Review of The Jewish Century by Yuri Slezkine (Hillel Halkin), December 2005","publisher":"Commentary","url":"https://www.commentary.org/articles/hillel-halkin/the-jewish-century-by-yuri-slezkine/","year":2005},{"id":"s19","title":"A Century of Immigration, 1820-1924 (exhibition: From Haven to Home: 350 Years of Jewish Life in America)","publisher":"Library of Congress","url":"https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/haventohome/haven-century.html","year":null},{"id":"s20","title":"German Jewish Émigrés and US Invention (Petra Moser, Alessandra Voena and Fabian Waldinger), American Economic Review 104(10): 3222-55","publisher":"American Economic Association","url":"https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.104.10.3222","year":2014},{"id":"s21","title":"Quality Matters: The Expulsion of Professors and the Consequences for PhD Student Outcomes in Nazi Germany (Fabian Waldinger), Journal of Political Economy 118(4): 787-831","publisher":"Journal of Political Economy, via LSE Research Online","url":"https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/68325/1/Waldinger_Quality%20matters_2016.pdf","year":2010},{"id":"s22","title":"Our History","publisher":"Cara (Council for At-Risk Academics)","url":"https://www.cara.ngo/who-we-are/our-history","year":null},{"id":"s23","title":"Intergenerational Mobility of Immigrants in the United States over Two Centuries (Ran Abramitzky, Leah Boustan, Elisa Jácome and Santiago Pérez), American Economic Review 111(2): 580-608","publisher":"American Economic Association","url":"https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20191586","year":2021},{"id":"s24","title":"Differences in Education and Earnings Across Racial and Ethnic Groups: Tastes, Discrimination, and Investments in Child Quality (Barry R. Chiswick), Quarterly Journal of Economics 103(3): 571-597","publisher":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://doi.org/10.2307/1885546","year":1988},{"id":"s25","title":"The Rise and Fall of the American Jewish PhD (Barry R. Chiswick), IZA Discussion Paper 3384","publisher":"IZA Institute of Labor Economics","url":"https://docs.iza.org/dp3384.pdf","year":2008},{"id":"s26","title":"Jewish Educational and Economic Success in the United States: A Search for Explanations (Paul Burstein), Sociological Perspectives 50(2): 209-228","publisher":"SAGE Publications","url":"https://doi.org/10.1525/sop.2007.50.2.209","year":2007},{"id":"s27","title":"Jewish Intellectual Exceptionalism? Ethnic Representation at the University of Toronto Medical School (Jordan A. Chad and Robert Brym), Contemporary Jewry 40: 387-402","publisher":"Springer Nature","url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s12397-020-09344-0","year":2020},{"id":"s28","title":"Jewish Scientists in Imperial Germany, Parts I and II (Shulamit Volkov), Aleph 1: 215-281","publisher":"Aleph: Historical Studies in Science and Judaism (Indiana University Press)","url":"https://muse.jhu.edu/article/406597/summary","year":2001},{"id":"s29","title":"Jewish Emancipation in the 18th and 19th Centuries (Friedrich Battenberg)","publisher":"European History Online (EGO), Leibniz Institute of European History","url":"https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/european-networks/jewish-networks/friedrich-battenberg-jewish-emancipation-in-the-18th-and-19th-centuries","year":2017},{"id":"s30","title":"Nobel Prize facts","publisher":"Nobel Prize Outreach (nobelprize.org)","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/facts/nobel-prize-facts/","year":2025},{"id":"s31","title":"Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States (Harriet Zuckerman), first published 1977; Internet Archive copy of the 1979 printing","publisher":"Free Press, via Internet Archive","url":"https://archive.org/details/scientificeliten0000zuck","year":1977},{"id":"s32","title":"Responsible Conduct of Research, Mentoring module: Conclusion (Columbia University training course)","publisher":"U.S. Office of Research Integrity (HHS)","url":"https://ori.hhs.gov/education/products/columbia_wbt/rcr_mentoring/conclusion/index.html","year":null},{"id":"s33","title":"The Nobel Family (Richard S. J. Tol), arXiv:2303.06106; later published in Scientometrics 129: 1329-1346 (2024)","publisher":"arXiv","url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.06106","year":2023},{"id":"s34","title":"Mentorship and protégé success in STEM fields (Yifang Ma, Satyam Mukherjee and Brian Uzzi), PNAS 117(25): 14077-14083","publisher":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, via PubMed Central","url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7322065/","year":2020},{"id":"s35","title":"Ivory Tower Intrigues: review of Jerome Karabel's The Chosen (James Traub)","publisher":"Slate","url":"https://slate.com/culture/2005/10/jerome-karabel-s-the-chosen.html","year":2005},{"id":"s36","title":"Review of The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton by Jerome Karabel (Frank Dobbin), Administrative Science Quarterly 51(4): 652-655","publisher":"Harvard DASH repository","url":"http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:12701500","year":2006},{"id":"s37","title":"Mapping the scientific and technological landscape: an analysis of Nobel Prize-producing institutions (Zhang and Zhang), Scientometrics 128: 6129-6145","publisher":"Springer Nature","url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-023-04831-1","year":2023},{"id":"s38","title":"New York Jews won't stop winning Nobel Prizes (Mark Schulte), 9 December 2012","publisher":"The Times of Israel","url":"https://www.timesofisrael.com/new-york-jews-wont-stop-winning-nobel-prizes/","year":2012},{"id":"s39","title":"Natural history of Ashkenazi intelligence (Gregory Cochran, Jason Hardy and Henry Harpending), Journal of Biosocial Science 38(5): 659-693","publisher":"Cambridge University Press, via PubMed","url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16867211/","year":2006},{"id":"s40","title":"Signatures of founder effects, admixture, and selection in the Ashkenazi Jewish population (Steven M. Bray and colleagues), PNAS 107(37): 16222-16227","publisher":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, via PubMed Central","url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2941333/","year":2010},{"id":"s41","title":"Are Jews smarter than everyone else? (Sander L. Gilman), Mens Sana Monographs 6(1): 41-47","publisher":"Mens Sana Monographs, via PubMed Central","url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3190562/","year":2008},{"id":"s42","title":"Religion and Education Around the World (overview)","publisher":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2016/12/13/religion-and-education-around-the-world/","year":2016},{"id":"s43","title":"Geographic distribution of disease mutations in the Ashkenazi Jewish population supports genetic drift over selection (Neil Risch and colleagues), American Journal of Human Genetics 72(4): 812-822","publisher":"American Journal of Human Genetics, via PubMed Central","url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1180346/","year":2003},{"id":"s44","title":"Sequencing an Ashkenazi reference panel supports population-targeted personal genomics and illuminates Jewish and European origins (Shai Carmi and colleagues), Nature Communications 5: 4835","publisher":"Nature Communications, via PubMed Central","url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4164776/","year":2014},{"id":"s45","title":"Melvin Schwartz: Biographical (Nobel Prize in Physics 1988)","publisher":"Nobel Prize Outreach (nobelprize.org)","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1988/schwartz/biographical/","year":1988}],"verification":{"status":"corrected","checkedAt":"2026-09-24","corrections":["Mentorship: removed the Times of Israel claim (s38) that I. I. Rabi supervised the Columbia dissertations of six later physics laureates. The laureates' own Nobel autobiographies show Arno Penzias wrote his thesis under Charles Townes and Leon Lederman under Eugene Booth (Leon Cooper's and Melvin Schwartz's advisers were Robert Serber and Jack Steinberger); only Julian Schwinger and Martin Perl were Rabi's doctoral students. Replaced with Melvin Schwartz's Nobel autobiography (new s45) on Columbia's Rabi-built physics department.","Marginal outsider: Hollinger's abstract says relatively little of Jewish pre-eminence can be explained by the Veblen thesis and refers to the 'most intellectually successful' Jewish community in diaspora history (the United States); wording corrected from 'most successful'.","Guilds: the Encyclopaedia Judaica (s15) says medieval European guilds were Christian bodies with no place for Jews, but it also documents Jewish craft guilds in Poland-Lithuania and Bohemia-Moravia; removed the overstatement that guild exclusion 'kept most Jews out of organized crafts'.","Haskalah timing: Pew (s10) says Jewish boys' education stayed primarily religious until the early nineteenth century; removed 'the Jewish Enlightenment of the 1800s' and dated the movement's push for secular education to the late eighteenth century, as in Battenberg (s29, citing Wessely's 1782 treatise).","Emancipation: 'mid-nineteenth century' changed to 'the 1860s and 1870s'; Britain's 1858 law described as what Battenberg says it did (lifting the Christian oath that barred Jews from Parliament) rather than 'full legal equality'; added that Russian Jews gained equality only in 1917; 'Nazi Germany reversed it in 1933' changed to 'began reversing it in 1933'.","Berlin: Jews were about 30% of university students according to Kovács (s13), not 'nearly a third'; corrected in two summaries.","Hungary: replaced 'about a quarter of students before the First World War and about 6% of the population in 1920' with the exact figures and years from Kovács: 24-25% of university students in 1910-14 (her Table 3) and 5.9% of the population in 1920.","Urban factor: Kovács's urban-population comparison (13.4% of graduate professionals vs about 13% of the urban population) concerns the graduate professions, not 'higher education'; wording corrected.","Refugee scholars: 'about 1,100 dismissals' changed to Hartshorne's exact count of 1,111 dismissals from universities and technical universities in 1933-34 (Waldinger, s21); noted that the law also removed political opponents, as Waldinger records.","Cara (s22): added that the roughly 2,000 scholars were helped between 1933 and 1939. Russian 1887 quotas (s14): clarified they covered secondary as well as higher education.","Migration summary: removed the unsupported generalization that movers were 'often young, skilled or already accomplished'; now distinguishes the accomplished refugee scholars of the 1930s from the mass migration, and added Chad and Brym's caveat (s27) that it was not only the most educated Jews who emigrated.","Foresti (s2): the claim that Veblen turned antisemitic arguments about a 'Jewish type' in a pro-Jewish direction appears in the publisher's (Emerald) abstract, not in the Goldsmiths record, whose full text is restricted (HTTP 401); URL changed to the DOI, year corrected to 2014 (Crossref publication date) and pages 63-81 added.","s17 was not a book description but a 2012 review by Carol Poll on the Jewish Book Council site; title and year corrected (the claim it supports is accurate).","Genetic hypotheses: added Risch et al. 2003 (s43), which found the geographic pattern of Ashkenazi disease mutations supports drift over selection, and Carmi et al. 2014 (s44), which confirmed a recent bottleneck of about 350 people that Cochran et al. had doubted; 'most of these diseases' reflects that Bray et al. (s40) found selection at some disease loci; removed the claim that Gilman calls the disease-intelligence link 'unproven' (his essay argues instead that race and intelligence are socially constructed categories).","First-generation opportunity: Chad and Brym's abstract says their evidence is inconsistent with 'the genetic and cultural theories' (not 'purely cultural'); added their note that any decline would not yet show among Nobel laureates, who are honoured late in life. Gilman's medical-school point is now described as a 2008 essay by a cultural historian, which is what it is.","Brief gaps filled from Kovács (s13): a Hungarian ban on Jewish land ownership lasting almost until emancipation steered Jewish business toward retail, industry and banking (land-ownership exclusion); in 1910 about 85% of Jewish secondary-school graduates went on to higher education (education investment). The 1917 schools remark is now attributed to Sándor Giesswein, who put the gap down to urbanization and access rather than talent.","Literacy factor: Pew dates the decree to around 65 CE (Joshua ben Gamla), made compulsory after 70 CE; 'traditional study was religious' softened to 'overwhelmingly religious' because Pew notes medieval centres of Jewish science and medicine; the link to nineteenth-century universities is now framed as an inference; Carmel Chiswick's praise paraphrased from her actual wording ('very convincing Cliometric analysis').","Dated present-tense statistics: US college-degree figures are from Pew's 2020 survey and worldwide schooling figures from Pew's 2016 study; 'today' removed.","Source metadata: s21 URL updated to its redirect target (researchonline.lse.ac.uk); s34 and s40 moved from PubMed (HTTP 203 to scripts) to PubMed Central full text; added pages or dates to s3, s9, s16, s18, s33 (Scientometrics 129: 1329-1346, 2024), s38 and s40; s31 notes the Internet Archive copy is the 1979 printing of the 1977 book.","Every other number, date and quotation was checked against the opened source and confirmed: Kuznets 95-99% (s5), 87% literacy and 31% illiteracy in 1910 (s13), 18.2%/4.2%/3.9% secondary diplomas (s13), 46.3% doctors, 49.4% lawyers and trainee lawyers, 4.9% civil service (s13), 9%/25% Vienna and 5%/30% Berlin (s13), 85% of students in Budapest (s13), 0.7% population and 79% Jewish share of dismissed mathematicians (s21), Göttingen almost 60% and Berlin almost 40% (s21), 31% patent increase (s20), 13.4 years and 61% (s11), 14.7 vs 12.0 years (s11), nearly 60%/28% vs about 30%/11% (s12), 48 of 92 laureates (s32), 696 of 727 (s33), nearly 40,000 scientists and 2x-4x (s34), 70% universities and 300+ institutions per continent (s37), 40 NYC laureates with 35 Jewish and 10 of 37 at Columbia (s38), Yale 10-12% until the early 1960s (s36), 2.5 million emigrants 1881-1924 (s19), 1901 first prizes (s30), Chiswick's PhD trends (s25), Volkov's 40 and 12+12 scientists (s28)."],"unresolved":["The reviews by Robert Chazan (s9) and Phillip Ackerman-Lieberman (s8) are paywalled and blocked scripted and automated browser access; their bibliographic details were confirmed, but the critical content is verified only through the quotations on Wikipedia (s7).","Hollinger (s3) and Volkov (s28) are on Project MUSE, which requires a CAPTCHA; their claims were checked against the full published abstracts (via OpenAlex and Crossref), not the article texts. Burstein (s26), Chiswick 1988 (s24) and Chad and Brym (s27) were likewise checked against their abstracts (and, for Chad and Brym, the notes visible on the publisher page).","Zuckerman's 48-of-92 figure (s31) was verified through the Columbia/ORI training page (s32) that quotes her book, not the book itself.","These URLs return HTTP 403 (bot protection) to scripted requests but load in a normal browser: s2 (DOI to Emerald), s6, s9, s24, s26, s38; s39 (PubMed) returns 203, and s3 and s28 serve a MUSE verification page. All other URLs return 200.","Kovács (s13) states that Wigner, von Neumann, Szilard, Teller and others all emigrated because of the numerus clausus; the file attributes this to her rather than asserting it, because individual biographies were not checked.","Carmel Chiswick, whose favourable review (s6) is cited, is thanked in the acknowledgments of Botticini and Eckstein's 2005 article (s5); readers may wish to weigh the review accordingly.","The New York counts (40 laureates from city public high schools, 35 Jewish) come from a 2012 newspaper article (s38) that this audit found wrong on another point (Rabi's doctoral students); the counts were not independently rebuilt from a laureate list.","Tol's 696-of-727 figure is from the arXiv preprint (s33); the numbers in the 2024 Scientometrics version were not checked."]}},"groupComparisons":{"meta":{"description":"Published tallies of Nobel laureates by religious background, world population by religion (Pew Research Center), and group-level birthplace comparisons built only from Nobel Foundation birthplace data and Pew's country-level religious composition. No religious label is assigned to any individual non-Jewish laureate.","compiled":"2026-09-24","shares":"All 'share' values are fractions (0.211 = 21.1%).","regionalMethod":"Each individual laureate (1901-2025) is placed in the country where they were born, using the Nobel Foundation's present-day country ('countryNow'). Scotland and Northern Ireland are merged into the United Kingdom, Guadeloupe is matched to Pew's Guadeloupe row, and the Faroe Islands (too small for Pew's table) are placed with Denmark. Each country is then grouped by the religion that Pew estimates was more than half its population in 2020; population is the sum of Pew's 2020 country totals. 'jewishLaureatesIncluded' counts laureates on this site's own Jewish list (223 people as of 2026-09-24) born in each group.","usage":"These figures describe representation, not merit. Birthplace is not religion, 2020 religious makeup is not the makeup at the time of a laureate's birth, and 125 years of prizes divided by today's population is a rough yardstick. Nothing here measures the ability or worth of any faith or people."},"religionTallies":[{"study":"Baruch Aba Shalev, 100 Years of Nobel Prizes (2003)","period":"1901-2000","scope":"The 654 laureates that Shalev's Table 21A sorts by religion, across all six prize categories. A footnote to the table says 19 further Peace Prizes in this period went to organizations, which are left out.","groups":[{"group":"Christian (all denominations)","count":430,"share":0.65749},{"group":"Jewish","count":138,"share":0.21101},{"group":"Atheist, agnostic or freethinker","count":68,"share":0.10398},{"group":"Buddhist","count":7,"share":0.0107},{"group":"Muslim","count":5,"share":0.00765},{"group":"Hindu","count":3,"share":0.00459},{"group":"Other (one each: Brahmin, Neo-Pagan, Shinto)","count":3,"share":0.00459}],"byCategory":{"Christian (all denominations)":{"chemistry":94,"medicine":108,"physics":96,"peace":66,"literature":45,"economics":21},"Jewish":{"chemistry":22,"medicine":44,"physics":38,"peace":9,"literature":10,"economics":15},"Atheist, agnostic or freethinker":{"chemistry":9,"medicine":15,"physics":7,"peace":3,"literature":32,"economics":2},"Buddhist":{"chemistry":1,"medicine":0,"physics":3,"peace":2,"literature":1,"economics":0},"Muslim":{"chemistry":1,"medicine":0,"physics":1,"peace":2,"literature":1,"economics":0},"Hindu":{"chemistry":0,"medicine":1,"physics":2,"peace":0,"literature":0,"economics":0},"Other (one each: Brahmin, Neo-Pagan, Shinto)":{"chemistry":0,"medicine":0,"physics":0,"peace":1,"literature":2,"economics":0}},"categoryTotals":{"chemistry":127,"medicine":168,"physics":147,"peace":83,"literature":91,"economics":38},"statedInText":[{"group":"Christian","share":0.654},{"group":"Jewish","share":0.211},{"group":"Atheist, agnostic or freethinker","share":0.105},{"group":"All others","share":0.03}],"caveats":["Counts come from Shalev's Table 21A, which sorts the 654 laureates into 27 religious labels (the text speaks of 28 religions); shares are each count divided by 654.","Shalev's total of 654 is lower than the Nobel Foundation's own record for 1901-2000, which lists 700 prizes to 696 individuals (by category: physics 162, chemistry 135, physiology or medicine 172, literature 97, peace 88, economics 46). His table is short by 46 awards. Every category has a gap, the biggest in physics (147 against 162) and, relative to size, in economics (38 against 46). The chapter does not explain it. The shares here are computed on his 654, not on the full list.","The Christian figure adds every Christian denomination in the table, including 3 Quakers and 7 Unitarians, for 430 (65.7%); Shalev's text and pie chart say 65.4%. His text also gives 10.5% for atheists, agnostics and freethinkers, while those table rows add up to 68 (10.4%). The gaps are small inconsistencies within the book itself.","'Other' is one laureate each labelled Brahmin, Neo-Pagan and Shinto; Shalev lists 'Brahmin' separately from 'Hindu'.","Shalev gives each person one label from biographical sources and does not explain his rules. The labels describe background or identity, not belief: Wikipedia's summary of the book notes that several laureates who called themselves atheists, such as Richard Feynman and Milton Friedman, appear under 'Jewish'.","The book twice gives Jews as 0.02% of the world's population (in the text and in Table 21C). That figure is wrong by a factor of ten: Shalev's own numbers (14 million Jews, and 1.2 billion Muslims described as 20% of humanity) put the Jewish share at about 0.2%.","The book also floats speculative explanations for the Jewish share, including a genetic one. This site uses only Shalev's counts, does not endorse those explanations, and makes no genetic claims."],"sourceIds":["s1","s2","s8"]},{"study":"Harriet Zuckerman, Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States (1977)","period":"1901-1972","scope":"The 71 science laureates (physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine) who were raised in the United States, among the 92 who did their prize-winning research there.","groups":[{"group":"Protestant","count":null,"share":0.72},{"group":"Jewish","count":19,"share":0.27},{"group":"Catholic","count":null,"share":0.01}],"caveats":["Science prizes only, and only laureates chosen by 1972 who did their prize-winning work in the United States.","'Religious origin' means the religion of the family a laureate grew up in, not personal belief.","Adding the 21 laureates raised abroad (92 in all), Zuckerman reports about two-thirds from Protestant families, 28% from Jewish families and just under 5% from Catholic families.","Her comparisons: about two-thirds of Americans were raised Protestant; the Catholic share among these laureates was about one twenty-fifth of the Catholic share of Americans; the Jewish share was about nine times the Jewish share of the US population, but about three times the Jewish share of American university faculty, a more comparable group."],"sourceIds":["s3"]},{"study":"Weijia Zhang and Robert G. Fuller, Physics Education (1998)","period":"1901-1990","scope":"The 139 Nobel laureates in physics from 1901 to 1990.","groups":[{"group":"Christian background","count":null,"share":0.6},{"group":"Jewish or Jewish background","count":null,"share":0.24},{"group":"No affiliation or another religion","count":null,"share":0.16}],"caveats":["Physics only. The paper gives rounded percentages, not counts.","Religion was taken from a single reference book (Schlessinger and Schlessinger, The Who's Who of Nobel Prize Winners, 1990), and the authors describe religious belief as the hardest item in their database to judge.","John Bardeen, who won the physics prize twice, is counted once among the 139."],"sourceIds":["s4"]}],"worldReligionPopulation":[{"group":"Christians","population":2268860000,"share":0.288,"year":2020,"sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Muslims","population":2022590000,"share":0.256,"year":2020,"sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Religiously unaffiliated","population":1905360000,"share":0.242,"year":2020,"note":"People who do not identify with any religion (atheists, agnostics and those who say 'nothing in particular'); some still hold religious or spiritual beliefs.","sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Hindus","population":1177860000,"share":0.149,"year":2020,"sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Buddhists","population":324190000,"share":0.041,"year":2020,"sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Other religions","population":172170000,"share":0.022,"year":2020,"note":"Baha'is, Daoists, Jains, Shintoists, Sikhs, Wiccans, Zoroastrians, and folk or traditional religions, combined.","sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Jews","population":14780000,"share":0.002,"year":2020,"note":"Pew counts Jews mainly by religious identity, using Israel's population register and Sergio DellaPergola's 'core' Jewish population estimates where surveys are thin. That is narrower than the 'Jewish or at least one Jewish parent' standard common in laureate lists: for the US in 2020, Pew's broader count was 7.5 million against 5.7 million by religion.","sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"World total","population":7885810000,"share":1.0,"year":2020,"note":"The seven groups add up exactly to this total.","sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Christians","population":2147230000,"share":0.306,"year":2010,"sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Muslims","population":1675800000,"share":0.239,"year":2010,"sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Religiously unaffiliated","population":1635250000,"share":0.233,"year":2010,"note":"People who do not identify with any religion (atheists, agnostics and those who say 'nothing in particular'); some still hold religious or spiritual beliefs.","sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Hindus","population":1051540000,"share":0.15,"year":2010,"sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Buddhists","population":342750000,"share":0.049,"year":2010,"sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Other religions","population":154110000,"share":0.022,"year":2010,"note":"Baha'is, Daoists, Jains, Shintoists, Sikhs, Wiccans, Zoroastrians, and folk or traditional religions, combined.","sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"Jews","population":13910000,"share":0.002,"year":2010,"note":"Pew counts Jews mainly by religious identity, using Israel's population register and Sergio DellaPergola's 'core' Jewish population estimates where surveys are thin. That is narrower than the 'Jewish or at least one Jewish parent' standard common in laureate lists: for the US in 2020, Pew's broader count was 7.5 million against 5.7 million by religion.","sourceIds":["s5","s9"]},{"group":"World total","population":7020590000,"share":1.0,"year":2010,"note":"The seven groups add up exactly to this total.","sourceIds":["s5","s9"]}],"regionalComparisons":[{"label":"All Nobel laureates worldwide (individuals)","key":"world","count":990,"population":7885810000,"year":2020,"period":"1901-2025","note":"Every individual laureate from 1901 to 2025 (990 people; the 28 organizations are left out), set against Pew's 2020 world population. It is the baseline for the rows below. Spreading 125 years of prizes over today's population is only a rough yardstick. Three laureates (Abdulrazak Gurnah, James A. Robinson, John M. Martinis) have no birthplace in the Nobel Foundation's API data, so the birthplace rows add up to 987.","jewishLaureatesIncluded":223,"sourceIds":["s7","s8","s5"]},{"label":"Laureates born in Muslim-majority countries","key":"muslim","count":30,"population":1816700000,"year":2020,"period":"1901-2025","note":"Individual laureates whose birthplace the Nobel Foundation places, by today's borders, in one of the 53 countries where Pew estimates Muslims were more than half the population in 2020 (population is those countries' 2020 total). Birthplace is not religion: the 30 were born in 16 of these countries and include people of many backgrounds, among them 3 on this site's Jewish list and several born in colonial-era French Algeria and Tunisia, the Dutch East Indies, British India, and the Ottoman, Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires.","jewishLaureatesIncluded":3,"birthCountries":{"Egypt":6,"Turkey":4,"Iran":3,"Pakistan":3,"Algeria":2,"Bosnia-Herzegovina":2,"Azerbaijan":1,"Bangladesh":1,"Indonesia":1,"Iraq":1,"Jordan":1,"Lebanon":1,"Morocco":1,"Nigeria":1,"Tunisia":1,"Yemen":1},"countriesInGroup":["Afghanistan","Albania","Algeria","Azerbaijan","Bahrain","Bangladesh","Bosnia-Herzegovina","Brunei","Burkina Faso","Chad","Comoros","Djibouti","Egypt","Eritrea","Gambia","Guinea","Guinea-Bissau","Indonesia","Iran","Iraq","Jordan","Kazakhstan","Kosovo","Kuwait","Kyrgyzstan","Lebanon","Libya","Malaysia","Maldives","Mali","Mauritania","Mayotte","Morocco","Niger","Nigeria","Oman","Pakistan","Palestinian territories","Qatar","Saudi Arabia","Senegal","Sierra Leone","Somalia","Sudan","Syria","Tajikistan","Tunisia","Turkey","Turkmenistan","United Arab Emirates","Uzbekistan","Western Sahara","Yemen"],"sourceIds":["s8","s6"]},{"label":"Laureates born in Christian-majority countries","key":"christian","count":682,"population":2461570000,"year":2020,"period":"1901-2025","note":"Individual laureates born, by today's borders, in the 120 countries where Pew estimates Christians were more than half the population in 2020. The group holds 193 of the 223 laureates on this site's Jewish list, because most Jewish laureates were born in Europe and the Americas. The United Kingdom, France and Australia are not here: Pew puts their Christian share just under half in 2020 (46.5% to 49.4%), though above half in 2010.","jewishLaureatesIncluded":193,"birthCountries":{"United States":296,"Germany":84,"Sweden":30,"Russia":29,"Poland":28,"Canada":22,"Italy":20,"Austria":19,"Switzerland":19,"Denmark":13,"Norway":13,"Hungary":12,"Belgium":9,"South Africa":9,"Spain":7,"Finland":5,"Ireland":5,"Ukraine":5,"Argentina":4,"Belarus":4,"Romania":4,"Lithuania":3,"Mexico":3,"Chile":2,"Colombia":2,"Guatemala":2,"Liberia":2,"Luxembourg":2,"Portugal":2,"St. Lucia":2,"Timor-Leste":2,"Venezuela":2,"Brazil":1,"Bulgaria":1,"Costa Rica":1,"Croatia":1,"Cyprus":1,"D.R. Congo":1,"Ethiopia":1,"Ghana":1,"Greece":1,"Guadeloupe":1,"Iceland":1,"Kenya":1,"Latvia":1,"Madagascar":1,"North Macedonia":1,"Peru":1,"Philippines":1,"Slovakia":1,"Slovenia":1,"Trinidad and Tobago":1,"Zimbabwe":1},"countriesInGroup":["Angola","Argentina","Armenia","Aruba","Austria","Bahamas","Barbados","Belarus","Belgium","Belize","Benin","Bolivia","Botswana","Brazil","Bulgaria","Burundi","Cameroon","Canada","Cape Verde","Central African Republic","Channel Islands","Chile","Colombia","Costa Rica","Croatia","Cuba","Curacao","Cyprus","D.R. Congo","Denmark","Dominican Republic","Ecuador","El Salvador","Equatorial Guinea","Estonia","Eswatini","Ethiopia","Federated States of Micronesia","Fiji","Finland","French Guiana","French Polynesia","Gabon","Georgia","Germany","Ghana","Greece","Grenada","Guadeloupe","Guam","Guatemala","Guyana","Haiti","Honduras","Hungary","Iceland","Ireland","Italy","Jamaica","Kenya","Kiribati","Latvia","Lesotho","Liberia","Lithuania","Luxembourg","Madagascar","Malawi","Malta","Martinique","Mexico","Moldova","Montenegro","Mozambique","Namibia","New Caledonia","Nicaragua","North Macedonia","Norway","Panama","Papua New Guinea","Paraguay","Peru","Philippines","Poland","Portugal","Puerto Rico","Republic of the Congo","Reunion","Romania","Russia","Rwanda","Samoa","Serbia","Seychelles","Slovakia","Slovenia","Solomon Islands","South Africa","South Sudan","Spain","St. Lucia","St. Vincent and the Grenadines","Suriname","Sweden","Switzerland","São Tomé and Príncipe","Tanzania","Timor-Leste","Togo","Tonga","Trinidad and Tobago","U.S. Virgin Islands","Uganda","Ukraine","United States","Vanuatu","Venezuela","Zambia","Zimbabwe"],"sourceIds":["s8","s6"]},{"label":"Laureates born in countries where most people have no religious affiliation","key":"unaffiliated","count":72,"population":1721460000,"year":2020,"period":"1901-2025","note":"Individual laureates born, by today's borders, in the 10 countries where Pew estimates most people had no religious affiliation in 2020. Most were born in Japan (30), the Netherlands (20) and China (12). Includes 4 on this site's Jewish list. The label describes these countries today, not the laureates or the country at the time of their birth.","jewishLaureatesIncluded":4,"birthCountries":{"Japan":30,"Netherlands":20,"China":12,"Czech Republic":6,"New Zealand":3,"Vietnam":1},"countriesInGroup":["China","Czech Republic","Hong Kong","Japan","Macao","Netherlands","New Zealand","North Korea","Uruguay","Vietnam"],"sourceIds":["s8","s6"]},{"label":"Laureates born in Hindu-majority countries (India and Nepal)","key":"hindu","count":9,"population":1431590000,"year":2020,"period":"1901-2025","note":"Individual laureates born in India or Nepal, the two countries where Pew estimates Hindus were more than half the population in 2020. All 9 were born in India. Birthplaces follow the Nobel Foundation's present-day country assignments, so laureates born in pre-1947 British India are split between India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.","jewishLaureatesIncluded":0,"birthCountries":{"India":9},"countriesInGroup":["India","Nepal"],"sourceIds":["s8","s6"]},{"label":"Laureates born in Buddhist-majority countries","key":"buddhist","count":1,"population":175360000,"year":2020,"period":"1901-2025","note":"Individual laureates born in the 7 countries where Pew estimates Buddhists were more than half the population in 2020. The one laureate is Aung San Suu Kyi, born in Myanmar (Burma). Japan is not in this group, because Pew estimates most people there had no religious affiliation in 2020, and the Nobel Foundation records the 14th Dalai Lama's birthplace in Tibet under China.","jewishLaureatesIncluded":0,"birthCountries":{"Myanmar":1},"countriesInGroup":["Bhutan","Cambodia","Laos","Mongolia","Myanmar","Sri Lanka","Thailand"],"sourceIds":["s8","s6"]},{"label":"Laureates born in Israel, the one Jewish-majority country","key":"jewish","count":6,"population":8800000,"year":2020,"period":"1901-2025","note":"Pew estimates Jews were 77% of Israel's population in 2020, the only Jewish-majority country. All 6 laureates born there were born before 1948 in British Mandate Palestine, and all 6 are on this site's Jewish list. Most Jewish laureates were born elsewhere, so this row says little about Jewish laureates as a whole.","jewishLaureatesIncluded":6,"birthCountries":{"Israel":6},"countriesInGroup":["Israel"],"sourceIds":["s8","s6"]},{"label":"Laureates born in countries where most people follow other religions (Taiwan)","key":"other","count":1,"population":23660000,"year":2020,"period":"1901-2025","note":"Taiwan is the only country where Pew estimates more than half the population in 2020 followed religions outside its six main groups, a category that includes folk religions and Daoism. The one laureate is Yuan T. Lee (chemistry, 1986).","jewishLaureatesIncluded":0,"birthCountries":{"Taiwan":1},"countriesInGroup":["Taiwan"],"sourceIds":["s8","s6"]},{"label":"Laureates born in countries with no religious majority","key":"none","count":186,"population":246680000,"year":2020,"period":"1901-2025","note":"Individual laureates born in the 7 countries where, by Pew's 2020 estimate, no single religious group was more than half the population. Nearly all were born in the United Kingdom (110, counting Scotland and Northern Ireland) and France (63); Pew puts Christians at 49.4% of the UK and 46.5% of France in 2020, down from 62.4% and 57.1% in 2010. Includes 17 on this site's Jewish list.","jewishLaureatesIncluded":17,"birthCountries":{"United Kingdom":110,"France":63,"Australia":10,"South Korea":3},"countriesInGroup":["Australia","France","Ivory Coast","Mauritius","Singapore","South Korea","United Kingdom"],"sourceIds":["s8","s6"]}],"sources":[{"id":"s1","title":"100 Years of Nobel Prizes, chapter 'Religion of Nobel Prize Winners' (pp. 57-61: text, Table 21A counts, Table 21B percentages, Fig. 8, Table 21C)","publisher":"Baruch Aba Shalev / Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi (ISBN 81-269-0278-7), viewed via Google Books preview","url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3jrbmL-DgZQC&pg=PA57","year":2003},{"id":"s2","title":"List of nonreligious Nobel laureates (section summarising Shalev's method)","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonreligious_Nobel_laureates","year":2026},{"id":"s3","title":"Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States, chapter 3 'Religious origins' (pp. 68-82), read via Internet Archive full-text search","publisher":"Harriet Zuckerman / The Free Press, New York","url":"https://archive.org/details/scientificeliten00zuck","year":1977},{"id":"s4","title":"Nobel prize winners in physics from 1901 to 1990: Simple statistics for physics teachers. Physics Education 33(3):196-203","publisher":"Weijia Zhang and Robert G. Fuller / IOP Publishing (author copy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln DigitalCommons)","url":"https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/physicsfuller/23/","year":1998},{"id":"s5","title":"How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 (Hackett, Stonawski, Tong, Kramer, Shi and Fahmy; doi:10.58094/fj71-ny11)","publisher":"Pew Research Center (Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures project)","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/","year":2025},{"id":"s6","title":"How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020, Appendix B: Religious composition table (201 countries and territories, 2010 and 2020)","publisher":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_appendix-b.pdf","year":2025},{"id":"s7","title":"Nobel Prize facts: 990 individuals and 28 organisations awarded, 1901-2025","publisher":"Nobel Foundation (NobelPrize.org)","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/facts/nobel-prize-facts/","year":2025},{"id":"s8","title":"Nobel Prize API v2.1, laureates endpoint: birthplace with present-day country, and prize records used for the 1901-2000 totals (downloaded 2026-09-24)","publisher":"Nobel Foundation (NobelPrize.org)","url":"https://api.nobelprize.org/2.1/laureates","year":2026},{"id":"s9","title":"How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020, full report PDF (chapters 2-8 give the exact 2010 and 2020 global counts for each group)","publisher":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf","year":2025}],"verification":{"status":"corrected","checkedAt":"2026-09-24","corrections":["Shalev scope: the file said the 654 were 'all' individual laureates for 1901-2000. The Nobel Foundation's records list 700 prizes to 696 individuals in that period, so the scope line now says the 654 are the laureates Shalev's table classifies, and a new caveat gives the Nobel Foundation's totals by category and the size of the gap. The Nobel API (s8) is cited for those totals.","Shalev 0.02% caveat: the figure appears twice in the book (text and Table 21C), not once, so 'misprint' became a plain statement that it is wrong by a factor of ten.","No-majority and Christian-majority notes: the rounded Christian shares for the UK and France (49% and 47% in 2020, 62% and 57% in 2010) were replaced with Pew's exact figures (49.4%, 46.5%, 62.4%, 57.1%), because 46.5% does not round cleanly to 47%.","World religion populations: the exact counts (for example 2,268,860,000 Christians in 2020) appear in the chapters of Pew's full report, not on the landing page cited as s5. The full report PDF was added as s9 and cited on every row.","Zhang and Fuller: added the paper's footnote that John Bardeen is counted once among the 139 physics laureates.","Source titles: s1 now lists Table 21C, where the second 0.02% figure appears. s8 now notes that it also supplies the 1901-2000 prize totals."],"unresolved":["Shalev's book does not explain its method for assigning religions or why its total (654) falls short of the Nobel Foundation's 696 individuals. His counts are reported as published and should not be read as complete.","Shalev's text gives Christians 65.4% and atheists, agnostics and freethinkers 10.5%, but his own table adds up to 430 (65.7%) and 68 (10.4%). The file keeps the table counts and notes the text figures separately.","Beyond Shalev (all categories, 1901-2000), Zuckerman (US science laureates to 1972) and Zhang and Fuller (physics, 1901-1990), no other published religion tally of laureates from an authoritative source was found. Popular websites and forums repeat Shalev's figures but add no independent data.","Pew has not published 2025 estimates of the world's religious makeup. Its June 2025 report gives 2010 and 2020 figures, and those are what this file uses.","'jewishLaureatesIncluded' and the 223 total come from this site's own list (data/work/jewish_index.json). They are internal counts, not published figures, so their accuracy depends on that list."]}},"baselines":{"meta":{"description":"Global context time series (1900 to latest available) and headline facts used to frame humanitarian impact on jewishnobelwinners.com. World aggregates only. Values are taken from the cited datasets as downloaded on 2026-09-24, with unit conversions and rounding only; derived series (poverty share from headcounts, democracy share from population by regime) are computed as described in each series note.","compiled":"2026-09-24","coverage":"Years 1900-2025 where available; pre-1950 world data exist only for some indicators and often only for benchmark years."},"series":[{"id":"life-expectancy","label":"Global life expectancy at birth","unit":"years","points":[{"year":1900,"value":32.0},{"year":1913,"value":34.1},{"year":1950,"value":46.39},{"year":1951,"value":47.13},{"year":1952,"value":48.22},{"year":1953,"value":48.81},{"year":1954,"value":49.65},{"year":1955,"value":50.21},{"year":1956,"value":50.74},{"year":1957,"value":51.06},{"year":1958,"value":51.62},{"year":1959,"value":49.58},{"year":1960,"value":47.82},{"year":1961,"value":50.35},{"year":1962,"value":53.24},{"year":1963,"value":53.72},{"year":1964,"value":54.26},{"year":1965,"value":54.0},{"year":1966,"value":54.56},{"year":1967,"value":55.07},{"year":1968,"value":55.62},{"year":1969,"value":56.0},{"year":1970,"value":56.27},{"year":1971,"value":56.02},{"year":1972,"value":57.22},{"year":1973,"value":57.69},{"year":1974,"value":58.06},{"year":1975,"value":58.27},{"year":1976,"value":58.58},{"year":1977,"value":59.15},{"year":1978,"value":59.51},{"year":1979,"value":60.16},{"year":1980,"value":60.5},{"year":1981,"value":60.92},{"year":1982,"value":61.34},{"year":1983,"value":61.52},{"year":1984,"value":61.87},{"year":1985,"value":62.21},{"year":1986,"value":62.73},{"year":1987,"value":63.18},{"year":1988,"value":63.37},{"year":1989,"value":63.78},{"year":1990,"value":63.95},{"year":1991,"value":64.06},{"year":1992,"value":64.29},{"year":1993,"value":64.43},{"year":1994,"value":64.3},{"year":1995,"value":64.88},{"year":1996,"value":65.2},{"year":1997,"value":65.54},{"year":1998,"value":65.74},{"year":1999,"value":66.04},{"year":2000,"value":66.43},{"year":2001,"value":66.75},{"year":2002,"value":67.07},{"year":2003,"value":67.4},{"year":2004,"value":67.74},{"year":2005,"value":68.14},{"year":2006,"value":68.61},{"year":2007,"value":69.03},{"year":2008,"value":69.3},{"year":2009,"value":69.68},{"year":2010,"value":70.09},{"year":2011,"value":70.4},{"year":2012,"value":70.82},{"year":2013,"value":71.14},{"year":2014,"value":71.4},{"year":2015,"value":71.61},{"year":2016,"value":71.88},{"year":2017,"value":72.07},{"year":2018,"value":72.39},{"year":2019,"value":72.61},{"year":2020,"value":71.92},{"year":2021,"value":70.86},{"year":2022,"value":72.64},{"year":2023,"value":73.17}],"sourceIds":["s1"],"note":"Period life expectancy. Before 1950 this dataset has only two world benchmark estimates (1900 and 1913, from Riley 2005); annual UN World Population Prospects estimates start in 1950. Dips in 1959-61 (China's famine) and 2020-21 (COVID-19) are real."},{"id":"child-mortality","label":"Children who die before their fifth birthday","unit":"% of live births","points":[{"year":1900,"value":40.9},{"year":1901,"value":40.8},{"year":1902,"value":40.1},{"year":1903,"value":39.5},{"year":1904,"value":38.9},{"year":1905,"value":38.8},{"year":1906,"value":38.1},{"year":1907,"value":37.4},{"year":1908,"value":37.2},{"year":1909,"value":36.6},{"year":1910,"value":36.4},{"year":1911,"value":36.0},{"year":1912,"value":35.5},{"year":1913,"value":35.1},{"year":1914,"value":35.4},{"year":1915,"value":35.3},{"year":1916,"value":35.1},{"year":1917,"value":35.3},{"year":1918,"value":37.6},{"year":1919,"value":35.7},{"year":1920,"value":34.4},{"year":1921,"value":34.2},{"year":1922,"value":33.2},{"year":1923,"value":33.1},{"year":1924,"value":33.1},{"year":1925,"value":32.4},{"year":1926,"value":32.7},{"year":1927,"value":31.9},{"year":1928,"value":31.9},{"year":1929,"value":32.0},{"year":1930,"value":31.6},{"year":1931,"value":31.4},{"year":1932,"value":30.7},{"year":1933,"value":30.5},{"year":1934,"value":30.7},{"year":1935,"value":29.5},{"year":1936,"value":29.1},{"year":1937,"value":28.8},{"year":1938,"value":28.7},{"year":1939,"value":28.0},{"year":1940,"value":27.9},{"year":1941,"value":27.8},{"year":1942,"value":27.9},{"year":1943,"value":27.7},{"year":1944,"value":27.4},{"year":1945,"value":26.7},{"year":1946,"value":25.8},{"year":1947,"value":25.5},{"year":1948,"value":24.9},{"year":1949,"value":24.9},{"year":1950,"value":24.7},{"year":1951,"value":24.3},{"year":1952,"value":23.9},{"year":1953,"value":23.3},{"year":1954,"value":22.8},{"year":1955,"value":22.3},{"year":1956,"value":21.3},{"year":1957,"value":20.5},{"year":1958,"value":19.7},{"year":1959,"value":19.9},{"year":1960,"value":20.2},{"year":1961,"value":18.8},{"year":1962,"value":17.0},{"year":1963,"value":16.2},{"year":1964,"value":15.7},{"year":1965,"value":15.1},{"year":1966,"value":15.1},{"year":1967,"value":15.3},{"year":1968,"value":15.0},{"year":1969,"value":14.6},{"year":1970,"value":14.2},{"year":1971,"value":13.9},{"year":1972,"value":13.7},{"year":1973,"value":13.5},{"year":1974,"value":13.3},{"year":1975,"value":13.1},{"year":1976,"value":12.8},{"year":1977,"value":12.6},{"year":1978,"value":12.3},{"year":1979,"value":11.9},{"year":1980,"value":11.9},{"year":1981,"value":11.58},{"year":1982,"value":11.24},{"year":1983,"value":11.13},{"year":1984,"value":10.9},{"year":1985,"value":10.63},{"year":1986,"value":10.31},{"year":1987,"value":9.94},{"year":1988,"value":9.98},{"year":1989,"value":9.54},{"year":1990,"value":9.35},{"year":1991,"value":9.29},{"year":1992,"value":9.23},{"year":1993,"value":9.11},{"year":1994,"value":8.94},{"year":1995,"value":8.75},{"year":1996,"value":8.64},{"year":1997,"value":8.43},{"year":1998,"value":8.28},{"year":1999,"value":7.94},{"year":2000,"value":7.67},{"year":2001,"value":7.43},{"year":2002,"value":7.13},{"year":2003,"value":6.83},{"year":2004,"value":6.58},{"year":2005,"value":6.23},{"year":2006,"value":5.96},{"year":2007,"value":5.7},{"year":2008,"value":5.47},{"year":2009,"value":5.29},{"year":2010,"value":5.06},{"year":2011,"value":4.95},{"year":2012,"value":4.67},{"year":2013,"value":4.51},{"year":2014,"value":4.39},{"year":2015,"value":4.29},{"year":2016,"value":4.17},{"year":2017,"value":4.09},{"year":2018,"value":4.0},{"year":2019,"value":3.96},{"year":2020,"value":3.92},{"year":2021,"value":3.96},{"year":2022,"value":4.0},{"year":2023,"value":3.83},{"year":2024,"value":3.74}],"sourceIds":["s2"],"note":"Deaths before age five per 100 live births. World values for 1900-1979 are Gapminder reconstructions; from 1980 onward they are UN IGME estimates (Our World in Data uses UN IGME wherever it exists)."},{"id":"world-population","label":"World population","unit":"billion people","points":[{"year":1900,"value":1.627},{"year":1901,"value":1.64},{"year":1902,"value":1.653},{"year":1903,"value":1.667},{"year":1904,"value":1.681},{"year":1905,"value":1.695},{"year":1906,"value":1.71},{"year":1907,"value":1.725},{"year":1908,"value":1.739},{"year":1909,"value":1.754},{"year":1910,"value":1.767},{"year":1911,"value":1.78},{"year":1912,"value":1.793},{"year":1913,"value":1.805},{"year":1914,"value":1.817},{"year":1915,"value":1.829},{"year":1916,"value":1.841},{"year":1917,"value":1.854},{"year":1918,"value":1.867},{"year":1919,"value":1.881},{"year":1920,"value":1.895},{"year":1921,"value":1.911},{"year":1922,"value":1.927},{"year":1923,"value":1.944},{"year":1924,"value":1.961},{"year":1925,"value":1.979},{"year":1926,"value":1.997},{"year":1927,"value":2.015},{"year":1928,"value":2.033},{"year":1929,"value":2.052},{"year":1930,"value":2.072},{"year":1931,"value":2.092},{"year":1932,"value":2.113},{"year":1933,"value":2.135},{"year":1934,"value":2.157},{"year":1935,"value":2.179},{"year":1936,"value":2.202},{"year":1937,"value":2.225},{"year":1938,"value":2.248},{"year":1939,"value":2.271},{"year":1940,"value":2.292},{"year":1941,"value":2.312},{"year":1942,"value":2.331},{"year":1943,"value":2.349},{"year":1944,"value":2.367},{"year":1945,"value":2.385},{"year":1946,"value":2.402},{"year":1947,"value":2.421},{"year":1948,"value":2.442},{"year":1949,"value":2.468},{"year":1950,"value":2.493},{"year":1951,"value":2.537},{"year":1952,"value":2.584},{"year":1953,"value":2.634},{"year":1954,"value":2.686},{"year":1955,"value":2.74},{"year":1956,"value":2.795},{"year":1957,"value":2.853},{"year":1958,"value":2.911},{"year":1959,"value":2.966},{"year":1960,"value":3.015},{"year":1961,"value":3.065},{"year":1962,"value":3.123},{"year":1963,"value":3.193},{"year":1964,"value":3.264},{"year":1965,"value":3.335},{"year":1966,"value":3.404},{"year":1967,"value":3.473},{"year":1968,"value":3.545},{"year":1969,"value":3.619},{"year":1970,"value":3.695},{"year":1971,"value":3.77},{"year":1972,"value":3.845},{"year":1973,"value":3.921},{"year":1974,"value":3.996},{"year":1975,"value":4.071},{"year":1976,"value":4.144},{"year":1977,"value":4.218},{"year":1978,"value":4.292},{"year":1979,"value":4.369},{"year":1980,"value":4.448},{"year":1981,"value":4.529},{"year":1982,"value":4.613},{"year":1983,"value":4.697},{"year":1984,"value":4.782},{"year":1985,"value":4.869},{"year":1986,"value":4.958},{"year":1987,"value":5.05},{"year":1988,"value":5.142},{"year":1989,"value":5.234},{"year":1990,"value":5.328},{"year":1991,"value":5.419},{"year":1992,"value":5.506},{"year":1993,"value":5.592},{"year":1994,"value":5.676},{"year":1995,"value":5.759},{"year":1996,"value":5.842},{"year":1997,"value":5.925},{"year":1998,"value":6.007},{"year":1999,"value":6.089},{"year":2000,"value":6.172},{"year":2001,"value":6.255},{"year":2002,"value":6.338},{"year":2003,"value":6.42},{"year":2004,"value":6.503},{"year":2005,"value":6.587},{"year":2006,"value":6.671},{"year":2007,"value":6.757},{"year":2008,"value":6.844},{"year":2009,"value":6.933},{"year":2010,"value":7.022},{"year":2011,"value":7.111},{"year":2012,"value":7.201},{"year":2013,"value":7.292},{"year":2014,"value":7.382},{"year":2015,"value":7.47},{"year":2016,"value":7.559},{"year":2017,"value":7.646},{"year":2018,"value":7.73},{"year":2019,"value":7.811},{"year":2020,"value":7.887},{"year":2021,"value":7.954},{"year":2022,"value":8.021},{"year":2023,"value":8.092}],"sourceIds":["s24"],"note":"Included so readers can see that the improvements below happened while the population grew about fivefold."},{"id":"extreme-poverty-longrun","label":"Share of people in extreme poverty (long-run, cost of basic needs)","unit":"% of world population","points":[{"year":1900,"value":59.74},{"year":1901,"value":59.64},{"year":1902,"value":58.32},{"year":1903,"value":57.87},{"year":1904,"value":57.91},{"year":1905,"value":58.21},{"year":1906,"value":57.61},{"year":1907,"value":58.6},{"year":1908,"value":58.71},{"year":1909,"value":56.63},{"year":1910,"value":56.49},{"year":1911,"value":56.71},{"year":1912,"value":55.91},{"year":1913,"value":55.68},{"year":1914,"value":55.61},{"year":1915,"value":55.92},{"year":1916,"value":55.57},{"year":1917,"value":56.43},{"year":1918,"value":59.93},{"year":1919,"value":58.39},{"year":1920,"value":59.21},{"year":1921,"value":58.83},{"year":1922,"value":57.42},{"year":1923,"value":57.33},{"year":1924,"value":55.97},{"year":1925,"value":55.01},{"year":1926,"value":54.24},{"year":1927,"value":53.99},{"year":1928,"value":53.13},{"year":1929,"value":52.49},{"year":1930,"value":52.67},{"year":1931,"value":53.16},{"year":1932,"value":53.2},{"year":1933,"value":54.08},{"year":1934,"value":53.52},{"year":1935,"value":52.6},{"year":1936,"value":51.66},{"year":1937,"value":51.8},{"year":1938,"value":51.86},{"year":1939,"value":51.23},{"year":1940,"value":51.08},{"year":1941,"value":50.86},{"year":1942,"value":51.43},{"year":1943,"value":51.14},{"year":1944,"value":53.23},{"year":1945,"value":55.09},{"year":1946,"value":56.04},{"year":1947,"value":54.96},{"year":1948,"value":53.58},{"year":1949,"value":52.57},{"year":1950,"value":53.13},{"year":1951,"value":52.34},{"year":1952,"value":52.12},{"year":1953,"value":51.19},{"year":1954,"value":51.0},{"year":1955,"value":49.15},{"year":1956,"value":47.67},{"year":1957,"value":47.65},{"year":1958,"value":47.44},{"year":1959,"value":47.07},{"year":1960,"value":47.51},{"year":1961,"value":46.84},{"year":1962,"value":46.11},{"year":1963,"value":44.61},{"year":1964,"value":46.2},{"year":1965,"value":46.98},{"year":1966,"value":46.37},{"year":1967,"value":45.47},{"year":1968,"value":46.27},{"year":1969,"value":45.35},{"year":1970,"value":44.62},{"year":1971,"value":44.1},{"year":1972,"value":43.66},{"year":1973,"value":42.9},{"year":1974,"value":42.32},{"year":1975,"value":41.51},{"year":1976,"value":40.31},{"year":1977,"value":39.47},{"year":1978,"value":38.31},{"year":1979,"value":36.4},{"year":1980,"value":33.86},{"year":1981,"value":34.92},{"year":1982,"value":35.69},{"year":1983,"value":35.53},{"year":1984,"value":34.41},{"year":1985,"value":33.0},{"year":1986,"value":33.46},{"year":1987,"value":34.11},{"year":1988,"value":35.01},{"year":1989,"value":33.71},{"year":1990,"value":30.86},{"year":1991,"value":32.82},{"year":1992,"value":34.3},{"year":1993,"value":35.24},{"year":1994,"value":35.97},{"year":1995,"value":35.81},{"year":1996,"value":32.36},{"year":1997,"value":28.97},{"year":1998,"value":31.59},{"year":1999,"value":28.39},{"year":2000,"value":25.33},{"year":2001,"value":23.2},{"year":2002,"value":21.8},{"year":2003,"value":21.59},{"year":2004,"value":22.31},{"year":2005,"value":19.5},{"year":2006,"value":18.61},{"year":2007,"value":17.6},{"year":2008,"value":18.31},{"year":2009,"value":17.26},{"year":2010,"value":16.97},{"year":2011,"value":15.99},{"year":2012,"value":15.93},{"year":2013,"value":13.7},{"year":2014,"value":12.45},{"year":2015,"value":12.18},{"year":2016,"value":11.3},{"year":2017,"value":10.89},{"year":2018,"value":10.01}],"sourceIds":["s4"],"note":"Share of people unable to afford basic needs (minimal food and heated shelter) at local prices, per Moatsos (2021). Computed as people in poverty divided by people in and out of poverty. Ends in 2018. Uses a different method from the World Bank $3/day series, so the two should not be spliced."},{"id":"extreme-poverty-worldbank","label":"Share of people living on less than $3 a day (World Bank international poverty line)","unit":"% of world population","points":[{"year":1990,"value":43.41},{"year":1991,"value":43.12},{"year":1992,"value":42.51},{"year":1993,"value":42.06},{"year":1994,"value":40.73},{"year":1995,"value":39.4},{"year":1996,"value":38.07},{"year":1997,"value":37.69},{"year":1998,"value":37.92},{"year":1999,"value":37.33},{"year":2000,"value":36.2},{"year":2001,"value":35.25},{"year":2002,"value":33.74},{"year":2003,"value":32.15},{"year":2004,"value":30.26},{"year":2005,"value":28.33},{"year":2006,"value":26.99},{"year":2007,"value":25.29},{"year":2008,"value":24.14},{"year":2009,"value":23.06},{"year":2010,"value":20.98},{"year":2011,"value":19.1},{"year":2012,"value":17.83},{"year":2013,"value":15.5},{"year":2014,"value":14.51},{"year":2015,"value":13.42},{"year":2016,"value":12.57},{"year":2017,"value":11.79},{"year":2018,"value":11.12},{"year":2019,"value":10.76},{"year":2020,"value":11.41},{"year":2021,"value":11.33},{"year":2022,"value":10.89},{"year":2023,"value":10.62},{"year":2024,"value":10.4}],"sourceIds":["s3"],"note":"2021 purchasing-power-parity dollars. Global figures start in 1990. The World Bank extends regional and global estimates to recent years with growth forecasts (nowcasts), so the latest points are provisional."},{"id":"world-gdp","label":"World GDP (inflation- and price-level-adjusted)","unit":"trillion international-$ (2021 prices)","points":[{"year":1900,"value":4.86},{"year":1920,"value":6.7},{"year":1940,"value":10.62},{"year":1950,"value":11.75},{"year":1960,"value":18.52},{"year":1970,"value":30.46},{"year":1980,"value":44.4},{"year":1990,"value":59.75},{"year":1991,"value":60.26},{"year":1992,"value":61.05},{"year":1993,"value":61.98},{"year":1994,"value":63.65},{"year":1995,"value":65.64},{"year":1996,"value":68.07},{"year":1997,"value":70.78},{"year":1998,"value":72.51},{"year":1999,"value":75.13},{"year":2000,"value":78.75},{"year":2001,"value":80.65},{"year":2002,"value":82.91},{"year":2003,"value":85.95},{"year":2004,"value":90.38},{"year":2005,"value":94.54},{"year":2006,"value":99.46},{"year":2007,"value":104.66},{"year":2008,"value":107.62},{"year":2009,"value":106.9},{"year":2010,"value":112.37},{"year":2011,"value":116.78},{"year":2012,"value":120.46},{"year":2013,"value":124.4},{"year":2014,"value":128.71},{"year":2015,"value":132.98},{"year":2016,"value":137.27},{"year":2017,"value":142.49},{"year":2018,"value":147.69},{"year":2019,"value":152.05},{"year":2020,"value":147.75},{"year":2021,"value":157.41},{"year":2022,"value":163.14},{"year":2023,"value":168.47},{"year":2024,"value":174.16},{"year":2025,"value":180.03}],"sourceIds":["s5"],"note":"From 1990 the values are World Bank data. Earlier values take the 1990 World Bank level and project it backward using growth rates from the Maddison Project Database, which gives world figures only for benchmark years here (1900, 1920, 1940, then every decade); Our World in Data rounds these pre-1990 values. Historical GDP estimates carry wide uncertainty."},{"id":"world-gdp-per-capita","label":"World GDP per person","unit":"international-$ (2011 prices)","points":[{"year":1900,"value":2265},{"year":1920,"value":2493},{"year":1940,"value":3413},{"year":1950,"value":3360},{"year":1960,"value":4404},{"year":1970,"value":5971},{"year":1980,"value":7239},{"year":1990,"value":8211},{"year":2000,"value":9904},{"year":2010,"value":13122},{"year":2015,"value":14713},{"year":2016,"value":15029},{"year":2017,"value":15416},{"year":2018,"value":15815},{"year":2019,"value":16091},{"year":2020,"value":15461},{"year":2021,"value":16283},{"year":2022,"value":16677}],"sourceIds":["s6"],"note":"Maddison Project Database 2023. The world aggregate exists only for benchmark years (1900, 1920, 1940, then every decade to 2010) and yearly from 2015 to 2022. Note the different price base (2011) from the world GDP series (2021)."},{"id":"literacy-rate","label":"Adult literacy rate","unit":"% of adults","points":[{"year":1900,"value":21.4},{"year":1910,"value":26.4},{"year":1920,"value":31.6},{"year":1930,"value":32.5},{"year":1940,"value":41.9},{"year":1950,"value":36.0},{"year":1960,"value":41.6},{"year":1975,"value":65.4},{"year":1976,"value":65.6},{"year":1977,"value":65.9},{"year":1978,"value":66.5},{"year":1979,"value":67.2},{"year":1980,"value":67.8},{"year":1981,"value":68.3},{"year":1982,"value":68.9},{"year":1983,"value":69.5},{"year":1984,"value":70.2},{"year":1985,"value":70.7},{"year":1986,"value":71.3},{"year":1987,"value":71.9},{"year":1988,"value":73.5},{"year":1989,"value":74.1},{"year":1990,"value":74.6},{"year":1991,"value":75.1},{"year":1992,"value":75.5},{"year":1993,"value":76.0},{"year":1994,"value":76.4},{"year":1995,"value":76.9},{"year":1996,"value":77.3},{"year":1997,"value":79.3},{"year":1998,"value":80.5},{"year":1999,"value":80.9},{"year":2000,"value":81.1},{"year":2001,"value":81.4},{"year":2002,"value":81.7},{"year":2003,"value":82.2},{"year":2004,"value":82.6},{"year":2005,"value":82.6},{"year":2006,"value":82.5},{"year":2007,"value":83.1},{"year":2008,"value":83.5},{"year":2009,"value":83.8},{"year":2010,"value":84.4},{"year":2011,"value":84.7},{"year":2012,"value":84.9},{"year":2013,"value":85.2},{"year":2014,"value":85.6},{"year":2015,"value":86.0},{"year":2016,"value":86.3},{"year":2017,"value":86.5},{"year":2018,"value":86.8},{"year":2019,"value":86.8},{"year":2020,"value":87.0},{"year":2021,"value":87.2},{"year":2022,"value":87.4},{"year":2023,"value":87.6},{"year":2024,"value":87.7}],"sourceIds":["s7"],"note":"Share of adults who can read and write a simple statement about everyday life. Values to 1960 are historical reconstructions (van Zanden et al., How Was Life?; UNESCO's 1950 mid-century census compilation) whose definitions of literacy and age cut-offs vary; from 1975 the values are yearly UNESCO Institute for Statistics estimates for people aged 15 and older. Because the sources change, the dip from 1940 (41.9%) to 1950 (36.0%) and the jump between 1960 and 1975 are partly artefacts of switching sources, not real reversals or leaps. No world value exists between 1960 and 1975."},{"id":"basic-education","label":"Adults with at least some formal basic education","unit":"% of population aged 15+","points":[{"year":1900,"value":33.2},{"year":1910,"value":35.6},{"year":1920,"value":38.6},{"year":1930,"value":40.9},{"year":1940,"value":45.9},{"year":1950,"value":54.3},{"year":1955,"value":57.5},{"year":1960,"value":60.5},{"year":1965,"value":63.8},{"year":1970,"value":67.1},{"year":1975,"value":70.1},{"year":1980,"value":72.8},{"year":1985,"value":75.3},{"year":1990,"value":77.6},{"year":1995,"value":79.4},{"year":2000,"value":81.1},{"year":2005,"value":83.0},{"year":2010,"value":84.7},{"year":2015,"value":86.1},{"year":2020,"value":86.9}],"sourceIds":["s8"],"note":"Share of people aged 15+ who received some formal primary, secondary or tertiary education. 10-year steps to 1950, then 5-year steps to 2020."},{"id":"infectious-disease-death-rate","label":"Death rate from infectious diseases (age-standardized)","unit":"deaths per 100,000 people","points":[{"year":1980,"value":318.6},{"year":1985,"value":281.3},{"year":1990,"value":248.1},{"year":1995,"value":231.1},{"year":2000,"value":207.4},{"year":2005,"value":178.2},{"year":2010,"value":143.4},{"year":2015,"value":117.6},{"year":2019,"value":103.1},{"year":2020,"value":160.9},{"year":2021,"value":201.5},{"year":2022,"value":122.3},{"year":2023,"value":104.0}],"sourceIds":["s9"],"note":"IHME Global Burden of Disease 2023 estimates; starts in 1980. Our World in Data defines infectious diseases as IHME's communicable, maternal, neonatal and nutritional group minus maternal/neonatal disorders and nutritional deficiencies, so it covers HIV/AIDS, respiratory infections and tuberculosis, diarrhoeal and other intestinal infections, malaria and neglected tropical diseases, and other infections. COVID-19 deaths are included, hence the 2020-21 spike. Age-standardized so that changes are not driven by population ageing. Our World in Data does not offer this series as a CSV because IHME data are not redistributable; values here (5-year steps plus 2019-2023) were checked against the figures behind Our World in Data's public chart. IHME licenses these data under a free-of-charge non-commercial user agreement, so confirm the site's use complies before republishing."},{"id":"infectious-disease-deaths","label":"Deaths from infectious diseases (total)","unit":"million deaths per year","points":[{"year":1980,"value":14.21},{"year":1985,"value":13.51},{"year":1990,"value":12.6},{"year":1995,"value":12.26},{"year":2000,"value":11.62},{"year":2005,"value":10.69},{"year":2010,"value":9.36},{"year":2015,"value":8.35},{"year":2019,"value":7.78},{"year":2020,"value":12.7},{"year":2021,"value":16.42},{"year":2022,"value":9.71},{"year":2023,"value":8.22}],"sourceIds":["s10"],"note":"Same IHME source, definition and licensing caveat as the age-standardized rate. Totals fell even as world population grew by more than 3.5 billion between 1980 and 2023."},{"id":"smallpox-cases","label":"Reported smallpox cases worldwide","unit":"reported cases per year","points":[{"year":1920,"value":401318},{"year":1921,"value":303850},{"year":1922,"value":190159},{"year":1923,"value":174799},{"year":1924,"value":186354},{"year":1925,"value":284845},{"year":1926,"value":324125},{"year":1927,"value":327289},{"year":1928,"value":272529},{"year":1929,"value":267322},{"year":1930,"value":360575},{"year":1931,"value":182829},{"year":1932,"value":211274},{"year":1933,"value":328212},{"year":1934,"value":327373},{"year":1935,"value":331151},{"year":1936,"value":263579},{"year":1937,"value":149184},{"year":1938,"value":144042},{"year":1939,"value":186393},{"year":1940,"value":235820},{"year":1941,"value":195863},{"year":1942,"value":124504},{"year":1943,"value":210358},{"year":1944,"value":407525},{"year":1945,"value":405833},{"year":1946,"value":302694},{"year":1947,"value":163375},{"year":1948,"value":161893},{"year":1949,"value":632858},{"year":1950,"value":426006},{"year":1951,"value":554756},{"year":1952,"value":167085},{"year":1953,"value":94135},{"year":1954,"value":99232},{"year":1955,"value":91823},{"year":1956,"value":96089},{"year":1957,"value":156652},{"year":1958,"value":280475},{"year":1959,"value":96270},{"year":1960,"value":67146},{"year":1961,"value":90555},{"year":1962,"value":98757},{"year":1963,"value":133504},{"year":1964,"value":76198},{"year":1965,"value":112280},{"year":1966,"value":92804},{"year":1967,"value":131697},{"year":1968,"value":80024},{"year":1969,"value":54202},{"year":1970,"value":33706},{"year":1971,"value":52806},{"year":1972,"value":65153},{"year":1973,"value":135859},{"year":1974,"value":218367},{"year":1975,"value":19278},{"year":1976,"value":954},{"year":1977,"value":3234},{"year":1978,"value":2},{"year":1979,"value":0},{"year":1980,"value":0},{"year":1990,"value":0},{"year":2000,"value":0},{"year":2010,"value":0},{"year":2020,"value":0},{"year":2023,"value":0}],"sourceIds":["s11","s29"],"note":"Reported cases only, which greatly understate true cases: Our World in Data cites an estimate of 10-15 million infections a year as late as 1967, when about 132,000 were reported. The last natural case was in 1977; the 2 cases in 1978 were a laboratory-linked outbreak in the UK. Zero every year since."},{"id":"food-supply","label":"Daily food supply per person","unit":"kilocalories per person per day","points":[{"year":1961,"value":2184},{"year":1962,"value":2230},{"year":1963,"value":2234},{"year":1964,"value":2260},{"year":1965,"value":2279},{"year":1966,"value":2295},{"year":1967,"value":2299},{"year":1968,"value":2303},{"year":1969,"value":2312},{"year":1970,"value":2358},{"year":1971,"value":2334},{"year":1972,"value":2322},{"year":1973,"value":2359},{"year":1974,"value":2351},{"year":1975,"value":2366},{"year":1976,"value":2360},{"year":1977,"value":2388},{"year":1978,"value":2446},{"year":1979,"value":2444},{"year":1980,"value":2457},{"year":1981,"value":2466},{"year":1982,"value":2493},{"year":1983,"value":2535},{"year":1984,"value":2544},{"year":1985,"value":2547},{"year":1986,"value":2549},{"year":1987,"value":2567},{"year":1988,"value":2584},{"year":1989,"value":2594},{"year":1990,"value":2579},{"year":1991,"value":2558},{"year":1992,"value":2565},{"year":1993,"value":2567},{"year":1994,"value":2588},{"year":1995,"value":2610},{"year":1996,"value":2618},{"year":1997,"value":2629},{"year":1998,"value":2640},{"year":1999,"value":2651},{"year":2000,"value":2659},{"year":2001,"value":2654},{"year":2002,"value":2654},{"year":2003,"value":2658},{"year":2004,"value":2667},{"year":2005,"value":2678},{"year":2006,"value":2693},{"year":2007,"value":2717},{"year":2008,"value":2731},{"year":2009,"value":2727},{"year":2010,"value":2796},{"year":2011,"value":2815},{"year":2012,"value":2835},{"year":2013,"value":2840},{"year":2014,"value":2871},{"year":2015,"value":2872},{"year":2016,"value":2879},{"year":2017,"value":2905},{"year":2018,"value":2910},{"year":2019,"value":2932},{"year":2020,"value":2943},{"year":2021,"value":2965},{"year":2022,"value":2987},{"year":2023,"value":3006}],"sourceIds":["s12"],"note":"Food available for consumption at the retail level (not what is eaten). Global FAO data start in 1961."},{"id":"cereal-yield","label":"Cereal yields","unit":"tonnes per 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data start in 1961."},{"id":"democracy-share","label":"Share of the world's population living in democracies","unit":"% of world 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plus liberal democracies under V-Dem's Regimes of the World classification, divided by total population (including the small share with no regime data). Not a steady rise: the share stayed around half of humanity from 1999 to 2016 (peak 53.5% in 2001) and has fallen since, mainly because V-Dem classifies India as an electoral autocracy from 2017, and Indonesia and Mexico from 2024. Earlier swings mostly track India too: the jump in 1952 (India's first general election, plus Japan after the Allied occupation ended) and the dip in 1975-77 (India's Emergency). Other democracy measures give different levels."},{"id":"womens-suffrage-countries","label":"Countries where all adult women (and men) can vote","unit":"countries","points":[{"year":1900,"value":1},{"year":1901,"value":2},{"year":1902,"value":2},{"year":1903,"value":2},{"year":1904,"value":2},{"year":1905,"value":2},{"year":1906,"value":3},{"year":1907,"value":3},{"year":1908,"value":3},{"year":1909,"value":3},{"year":1910,"value":3},{"year":1911,"value":3},{"year":1912,"value":3},{"year":1913,"value":4},{"year":1914,"value":4},{"year":1915,"value":6},{"year":1916,"value":6},{"year":1917,"value":8},{"year":1918,"value":12},{"year":1919,"value":17},{"year":1920,"value":19},{"year":1921,"value":19},{"year":1922,"value":19},{"year":1923,"value":19},{"year":1924,"value":20},{"year":1925,"value":21},{"year":1926,"value":21},{"year":1927,"value":21},{"year":1928,"value":22},{"year":1929,"value":22},{"year":1930,"value":23},{"year":1931,"value":24},{"year":1932,"value":27},{"year":1933,"value":26},{"year":1934,"value":26},{"year":1935,"value":27},{"year":1936,"value":27},{"year":1937,"value":27},{"year":1938,"value":27},{"year":1939,"value":26},{"year":1940,"value":23},{"year":1941,"value":23},{"year":1942,"value":24},{"year":1943,"value":24},{"year":1944,"value":26},{"year":1945,"value":30},{"year":1946,"value":37},{"year":1947,"value":42},{"year":1948,"value":45},{"year":1949,"value":49},{"year":1950,"value":55},{"year":1951,"value":62},{"year":1952,"value":68},{"year":1953,"value":72},{"year":1954,"value":75},{"year":1955,"value":77},{"year":1956,"value":84},{"year":1957,"value":100},{"year":1958,"value":104},{"year":1959,"value":108},{"year":1960,"value":111},{"year":1961,"value":115},{"year":1962,"value":120},{"year":1963,"value":124},{"year":1964,"value":133},{"year":1965,"value":135},{"year":1966,"value":136},{"year":1967,"value":139},{"year":1968,"value":140},{"year":1969,"value":140},{"year":1970,"value":143},{"year":1971,"value":145},{"year":1972,"value":145},{"year":1973,"value":146},{"year":1974,"value":147},{"year":1975,"value":153},{"year":1976,"value":154},{"year":1977,"value":155},{"year":1978,"value":156},{"year":1979,"value":159},{"year":1980,"value":159},{"year":1981,"value":159},{"year":1982,"value":159},{"year":1983,"value":159},{"year":1984,"value":160},{"year":1985,"value":161},{"year":1986,"value":161},{"year":1987,"value":161},{"year":1988,"value":162},{"year":1989,"value":162},{"year":1990,"value":171},{"year":1991,"value":180},{"year":1992,"value":180},{"year":1993,"value":182},{"year":1994,"value":183},{"year":1995,"value":183},{"year":1996,"value":184},{"year":1997,"value":184},{"year":1998,"value":184},{"year":1999,"value":184},{"year":2000,"value":184},{"year":2001,"value":184},{"year":2002,"value":185},{"year":2003,"value":187},{"year":2004,"value":187},{"year":2005,"value":187},{"year":2006,"value":189},{"year":2007,"value":190},{"year":2008,"value":192},{"year":2009,"value":192},{"year":2010,"value":193},{"year":2011,"value":193},{"year":2012,"value":193},{"year":2013,"value":193},{"year":2014,"value":193},{"year":2015,"value":193},{"year":2016,"value":193},{"year":2017,"value":193},{"year":2018,"value":193},{"year":2019,"value":193},{"year":2020,"value":193},{"year":2021,"value":193},{"year":2022,"value":193},{"year":2023,"value":193},{"year":2024,"value":193},{"year":2025,"value":193}],"sourceIds":["s15","s39"],"note":"LIED 'universal suffrage' category: a country counts once the law gives the vote to virtually all adult citizens, men and women. In LIED every country coded as giving all women the vote is also coded as universal, so this count equals the number of countries with women's suffrage. Ignores whether elections were actually held, informal barriers, and legal restrictions based on age, criminal conviction, disability or residence. Counts only the countries LIED covers in each year (about 143 in 1900, 199 in 2025), so part of the rise reflects new states formed through decolonization. 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Rounded to 4 significant figures."},{"id":"transistors-per-chip","label":"Transistors on the largest microprocessor (Moore's law)","unit":"transistors","points":[{"year":1971,"value":2308},{"year":1972,"value":3554},{"year":1974,"value":6097},{"year":1979,"value":29163},{"year":1982,"value":135772},{"year":1985,"value":273841},{"year":1986,"value":273841},{"year":1988,"value":273841},{"year":1989,"value":1207900},{"year":1990,"value":1207900},{"year":1992,"value":3105900},{"year":1993,"value":3105900},{"year":1994,"value":3105900},{"year":1995,"value":9646616},{"year":1996,"value":9646616},{"year":1997,"value":9646616},{"year":1998,"value":15261378},{"year":1999,"value":21673922},{"year":2000,"value":37180264},{"year":2001,"value":42550656},{"year":2002,"value":220673400},{"year":2003,"value":220673400},{"year":2004,"value":273842000},{"year":2005,"value":305052770},{"year":2006,"value":582941600},{"year":2007,"value":805842200},{"year":2008,"value":805842200},{"year":2009,"value":2308241400},{"year":2010,"value":2308241400},{"year":2011,"value":2600000000},{"year":2012,"value":2600000000},{"year":2013,"value":5000000000},{"year":2014,"value":5700000000},{"year":2016,"value":8000000000},{"year":2017,"value":19200000000},{"year":2018,"value":21100000000},{"year":2019,"value":39500000000},{"year":2020,"value":39500000000},{"year":2021,"value":58200000000}],"sourceIds":["s22"],"note":"Starts in 1971 and ends in 2021 in this dataset; irregular years."},{"id":"vaccination-dtp3","label":"One-year-olds given all three doses of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine","unit":"% of one-year-olds","points":[{"year":1980,"value":20},{"year":1981,"value":23},{"year":1982,"value":25},{"year":1983,"value":37},{"year":1984,"value":44},{"year":1985,"value":48},{"year":1986,"value":51},{"year":1987,"value":55},{"year":1988,"value":63},{"year":1989,"value":68},{"year":1990,"value":76},{"year":1991,"value":71},{"year":1992,"value":69},{"year":1993,"value":69},{"year":1994,"value":72},{"year":1995,"value":72},{"year":1996,"value":72},{"year":1997,"value":71},{"year":1998,"value":71},{"year":1999,"value":71},{"year":2000,"value":72},{"year":2001,"value":72},{"year":2002,"value":72},{"year":2003,"value":74},{"year":2004,"value":76},{"year":2005,"value":77},{"year":2006,"value":78},{"year":2007,"value":78},{"year":2008,"value":81},{"year":2009,"value":83},{"year":2010,"value":83},{"year":2011,"value":84},{"year":2012,"value":84},{"year":2013,"value":83},{"year":2014,"value":85},{"year":2015,"value":85},{"year":2016,"value":86},{"year":2017,"value":86},{"year":2018,"value":86},{"year":2019,"value":86},{"year":2020,"value":83},{"year":2021,"value":82},{"year":2022,"value":85},{"year":2023,"value":84},{"year":2024,"value":85}],"sourceIds":["s23","s25"],"note":"WHO/UNICEF estimates from 1980. WHO says fewer than 5% of infants had access to routine immunization when its Expanded Programme on Immunization began in 1974."}],"facts":[{"id":"vaccines-lives-saved-since-1974","text":"A WHO-led modelling study published in The Lancet in 2024 estimated that vaccination against 14 diseases prevented about 154 million deaths in the 50 years after WHO's Expanded Programme on Immunization began in 1974.","value":154000000,"unit":"deaths averted (1974-2024)","sourceIds":["s25","s26"]},{"id":"vaccines-infants-saved","text":"Of those deaths averted by vaccines since 1974, about 101 million would have been babies under one year old.","value":101000000,"unit":"infant deaths averted (1974-2024)","sourceIds":["s25","s26"]},{"id":"vaccines-share-of-infant-mortality-decline","text":"The same study credits vaccination with about 40% of the drop in infant deaths worldwide over those 50 years (52% in the African region).","value":40,"unit":"% of global infant-mortality decline","sourceIds":["s25","s26"]},{"id":"measles-vaccine-lives-saved","text":"Measles vaccines account for the largest single part of that total: nearly 94 million (93.7 million in the Lancet paper) of the 154 million deaths averted.","value":94000000,"unit":"deaths averted by measles vaccination (1974-2024)","sourceIds":["s25","s26"]},{"id":"measles-deaths-averted-2000-2024","text":"WHO estimates that measles vaccination alone prevented nearly 59 million deaths between 2000 and 2024.","value":59000000,"unit":"deaths averted (2000-2024)","sourceIds":["s31"]},{"id":"haber-bosch-share-fed","text":"Erisman and colleagues (Nature Geoscience, 2008) estimated that nitrogen fertilizer made with the Haber-Bosch process fed about 48% of the world's population in 2008, up from 44% in 2000.","value":48,"unit":"% of world population (2008)","sourceIds":["s27","s28"]},{"id":"haber-bosch-births-supported","text":"The same paper estimated that nitrogen fertilizer supported about 4 billion births between 1908, when Fritz Haber filed his ammonia patent, and 2008: roughly 42% of all people born worldwide in that century.","value":42,"unit":"% of global births, 1908-2008","sourceIds":["s27","s28"]},{"id":"smallpox-deaths-20th-century","text":"Smallpox killed an estimated 300 million people in the 20th century alone, according to Donald Henderson, who directed WHO's global eradication campaign; WHO cites the same figure.","value":300000000,"unit":"deaths (1900-1999)","sourceIds":["s29","s30"]},{"id":"smallpox-actual-vs-reported-1967","text":"Reported figures badly understate smallpox: about 132,000 cases were reported worldwide in 1967, but a historical estimate cited by Our World in Data (Crosby, 1993) puts the true number at 10 to 15 million infections a year at that time (lower bound shown).","value":10000000,"unit":"estimated infections per year in 1967 (lower bound of 10-15 million)","sourceIds":["s29","s11"]},{"id":"smallpox-eradicated","text":"On 8 May 1980 the World Health Assembly declared smallpox eradicated. It was the first human disease ever wiped out; the last natural case was in Somalia in October 1977.","value":1980,"unit":"year eradication was declared","sourceIds":["s30","s29","s32"]},{"id":"smallpox-eradication-return","text":"WHO says the roughly US$300 million spent on eradicating smallpox has saved the world well over US$1 billion every year since 1980.","value":1000000000,"unit":"US$ saved per year (lower bound)","sourceIds":["s30"]},{"id":"polio-decline","text":"Wild polio cases have fallen by more than 99% since 1988, when there were an estimated 350,000 cases in over 125 countries; the virus is now endemic in only two countries.","value":99,"unit":"% decline in wild poliovirus cases since 1988","sourceIds":["s32"]},{"id":"polio-paralysis-averted","text":"WHO estimates that more than 20 million people can walk today who would otherwise have been paralysed by polio, thanks to vaccination.","value":20000000,"unit":"people spared paralysis","sourceIds":["s32","s25"]},{"id":"malaria-deaths-averted","text":"WHO's World Malaria Report 2025 estimates that about 14 million malaria deaths and 2.3 billion malaria cases have been averted since 2000, including about 1 million lives saved in 2024 alone.","value":14000000,"unit":"malaria deaths averted, 2000-2024","sourceIds":["s33"]},{"id":"tb-lives-saved","text":"WHO estimates that global efforts against tuberculosis have saved about 83 million lives since 2000.","value":83000000,"unit":"lives saved since 2000","sourceIds":["s34"]},{"id":"aids-deaths-decline","text":"Yearly AIDS-related deaths fell by 73% from their 2004 peak of 2.1 million to about 570,000 in 2025.","value":73,"unit":"% decline since 2004 peak","sourceIds":["s35"]},{"id":"hiv-treatment-reach","text":"About 32.1 million people were receiving antiretroviral treatment for HIV in 2025.","value":32100000,"unit":"people on antiretroviral therapy (2025)","sourceIds":["s35"]},{"id":"blood-donations","text":"About 120.4 million blood donations are collected worldwide each year, according to WHO data (mostly for 2023) reported by 168 countries covering 97% of the world's population.","value":120400000,"unit":"blood donations per year","sourceIds":["s36"]},{"id":"life-expectancy-doubled","text":"Average life expectancy worldwide rose from about 32 years in 1900 to 73.2 years in 2023, more than doubling.","value":73.2,"unit":"years (2023; 32 in 1900)","sourceIds":["s1"]},{"id":"child-mortality-fall","text":"In 1900 about 40.9% of children died before age five; by 2024 the figure was 3.74%, roughly one-eleventh as high.","value":3.74,"unit":"% of children dying before age 5 (2024; 40.9% in 1900)","sourceIds":["s2"]},{"id":"extreme-poverty-longrun","text":"By the cost-of-basic-needs measure, about 60% of humanity could not afford basic food and shelter in 1900; by 2018 it was about 10%.","value":10.0,"unit":"% in extreme poverty (2018)","sourceIds":["s4"]},{"id":"extreme-poverty-worldbank","text":"Under the World Bank's $3-a-day line, the share of people in extreme poverty fell from 43.4% in 1990 to about 10.4% in 2024 (latest years are provisional estimates).","value":10.4,"unit":"% below $3 a day (2024, provisional)","sourceIds":["s3"]},{"id":"world-population-growth","text":"The world's population grew from about 1.63 billion in 1900 to 8.09 billion in 2023, so the gains in survival and income happened for far more people.","value":8.092,"unit":"billion people (2023)","sourceIds":["s24"]},{"id":"world-gdp-growth","text":"Adjusted for inflation and price differences, world economic output rose about 37-fold between 1900 and 2025.","value":37.0,"unit":"times larger (2025 vs 1900)","sourceIds":["s5"]},{"id":"gdp-per-capita-growth","text":"Average income per person worldwide rose roughly 7.4-fold between 1900 and 2022 in Maddison Project estimates.","value":7.4,"unit":"times larger (2022 vs 1900)","sourceIds":["s6"]},{"id":"literacy-rise","text":"About 21% of adults worldwide could read and write in 1900; by 2024 about 88% could. Early figures use looser definitions of literacy, so the comparison is approximate.","value":87.7,"unit":"% of adults literate (2024)","sourceIds":["s7"]},{"id":"basic-education-rise","text":"The share of adults with at least some formal schooling rose from about 33% in 1900 to 87% in 2020.","value":86.9,"unit":"% of adults with basic education (2020)","sourceIds":["s8"]},{"id":"infectious-death-rate-fall","text":"The age-standardized death rate from infectious diseases fell by about 68% between 1980 and 2019, jumped during the COVID-19 pandemic, and was back near pre-pandemic levels by 2023.","value":68,"unit":"% decline 1980-2019","sourceIds":["s9"]},{"id":"food-supply-rise","text":"Food available per person worldwide rose from about 2,184 to 3,006 kilocalories a day between 1961 and 2023, even as population more than doubled.","value":3006,"unit":"kcal per person per day (2023)","sourceIds":["s12","s24"]},{"id":"cereal-yield-rise","text":"Average cereal yields roughly tripled, from 1.35 to 4.21 tonnes per hectare between 1961 and 2024.","value":3.1,"unit":"times higher (2024 vs 1961)","sourceIds":["s13"]},{"id":"universal-suffrage-spread","text":"In 1900 only 1 country (New Zealand, from 1893) gave the vote to all adult women and men; by 2025, 193 countries did.","value":193,"unit":"countries with universal suffrage (2025)","sourceIds":["s15","s39"]},{"id":"democracy-share","text":"By V-Dem's classification, about 3.4% of the world's people lived in democracies in 1900. The share peaked at 53.5% in 2001 and has since fallen to 26.5% in 2025.","value":26.5,"unit":"% of world population (2025)","sourceIds":["s14"]},{"id":"internet-users-2025","text":"The International Telecommunication Union estimates that about 6 billion people, roughly three-quarters of humanity, used the Internet in 2025, while 2.2 billion remained offline.","value":6000000000,"unit":"internet users (2025)","sourceIds":["s37"]},{"id":"computing-performance-gain","text":"Economist William Nordhaus estimated that computer performance improved by a factor of between 1.7 trillion and 76 trillion compared with manual calculation, depending on the measure used.","value":1700000000000,"unit":"times improvement (lower bound)","sourceIds":["s38"]},{"id":"memory-price-fall","text":"Adjusted for inflation, a terabyte's worth of computer memory would have cost about $3.8 quadrillion in 1957; by 2023 it cost about $1,090, a fall of roughly 3.5 trillion-fold.","value":1090,"unit":"constant 2020 US$ per terabyte (2023)","sourceIds":["s20"]},{"id":"air-travel-growth","text":"Airline passengers travelled about 28 billion passenger-kilometres in 1950 and about 9.1 trillion in 2024.","value":9097.6,"unit":"billion passenger-km (2024)","sourceIds":["s17"]},{"id":"co2-growth","text":"Global CO2 emissions from fossil fuels and industry rose from about 1.96 billion tonnes in 1900 to 38.6 billion tonnes in 2024, an environmental cost that came with the same growth.","value":38.6,"unit":"billion tonnes CO2 (2024)","sourceIds":["s16"]}],"sources":[{"id":"s1","title":"Life expectancy (long-run). Underlying data: Riley (2005); Zijdeman et al. (2015); Human Mortality Database (2025); UN World Population Prospects (2024)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy","year":2025},{"id":"s2","title":"Child mortality rate (under-5, long-run). Underlying data: Gapminder (2015); UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (2025)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/child-mortality","year":2025},{"id":"s3","title":"Share of population living in extreme poverty ($3 a day, 2021 PPP). Underlying data: World Bank Poverty and Inequality Platform (2026)","publisher":"Our World in Data / World Bank","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-in-extreme-poverty","year":2026},{"id":"s4","title":"Share of population living in extreme poverty, cost-of-basic-needs approach. Underlying data: Moatsos (2021), 'Global extreme poverty: Present and past since 1820' (OECD, How Was Life? Vol. II)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-living-in-extreme-poverty-cost-of-basic-needs","year":2021},{"id":"s5","title":"Global GDP over the long run (international-$ at 2021 prices). Underlying data: Eurostat, OECD, IMF and World Bank, World Development Indicators (2026); Bolt & van Zanden, Maddison Project Database 2023; Maddison Database 2010","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-gdp-over-the-long-run","year":2026},{"id":"s6","title":"GDP per capita (international-$ at 2011 prices). Underlying data: Bolt & van Zanden, Maddison Project Database 2023","publisher":"Our World in Data / Maddison Project","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gdp-per-capita-maddison-project-database","year":2023},{"id":"s7","title":"Literate and illiterate world population. Underlying data: UNESCO (1953, 1957); Buringh & van Zanden (2009); van Zanden et al. (2014); UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2026)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/literate-and-illiterate-world-population","year":2026},{"id":"s8","title":"Share of the world's population with formal basic education. Underlying data: van Zanden et al., How Was Life? (2014); Wittgenstein Centre (2024); World Bank EdStats (2024)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-the-world-population-with-at-least-basic-education","year":2024},{"id":"s9","title":"Death rate from infectious diseases (age-standardized). Underlying data: IHME, Global Burden of Disease (2025)","publisher":"Our World in Data / IHME","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/infectious-disease-death-rates","year":2025},{"id":"s10","title":"Deaths from infectious diseases. Underlying data: IHME, Global Burden of Disease (2025)","publisher":"Our World in Data / IHME","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/deaths-from-infectious-diseases","year":2025},{"id":"s11","title":"Smallpox cases reported worldwide. Underlying data: World Health Organization (2011)","publisher":"Our World in Data / WHO","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-smallpox-cases","year":2023},{"id":"s12","title":"Daily supply of calories per person. Underlying data: FAO Food Balances (2025) and historical sources","publisher":"Our World in Data / FAO","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/daily-per-capita-caloric-supply","year":2025},{"id":"s13","title":"Cereal yields. Underlying data: FAO, Production: Crops and livestock products (2025)","publisher":"Our World in Data / FAO","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/cereal-yield","year":2025},{"id":"s14","title":"People living in democracies and autocracies (Regimes of the World classification, Luhrmann et al. 2018). Underlying data: V-Dem Democracy Report v16 (2026); population from HYDE, Gapminder, UN WPP","publisher":"Our World in Data / V-Dem","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/people-living-in-democracies-autocracies","year":2026},{"id":"s15","title":"Countries that have universal voting rights. Underlying data: Lexical Index of Electoral Democracy (LIED) v6.9 (2026)","publisher":"Our World in Data / LIED","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/countries-that-have-universal-voting-rights","year":2026},{"id":"s16","title":"Annual CO2 emissions. Underlying data: Global Carbon Project, Global Carbon Budget v15 (2025)","publisher":"Our World in Data / Global Carbon Project","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-co2-emissions-per-country","year":2025},{"id":"s17","title":"Global air travel capacity and passenger traffic. Underlying data: International Civil Aviation Organization via Airlines for America (2026)","publisher":"Our World in Data / ICAO","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/airline-capacity-and-traffic","year":2026},{"id":"s18","title":"Share of the population using the Internet. Underlying data: ITU World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators Database, via World Bank WDI (2026)","publisher":"Our World in Data / ITU / World Bank","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-individuals-using-the-internet","year":2026},{"id":"s19","title":"Number of people using the Internet. Underlying data: ITU via World Bank (2026); UN Population Division","publisher":"Our World in Data / ITU / World Bank","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/number-of-internet-users","year":2026},{"id":"s20","title":"Historical price of computer memory and storage (constant 2020 US$ per terabyte). Underlying data: John C. McCallum (2023); US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2026)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/historical-cost-of-computer-memory-and-storage","year":2023},{"id":"s21","title":"Computational capacity of the fastest supercomputers. Underlying data: Dongarra et al., TOP500 Supercomputer Lists (1993-2025)","publisher":"Our World in Data / TOP500","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/supercomputer-power-flops","year":2025},{"id":"s22","title":"Moore's law: the number of transistors per microprocessor. Underlying data: Karl Rupp, Microprocessor Trend Data (2022)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/transistors-per-microprocessor","year":2022},{"id":"s23","title":"Vaccination coverage (DTP3 among one-year-olds). Underlying data: WHO & UNICEF immunization coverage estimates (2025)","publisher":"Our World in Data / WHO & UNICEF","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-vaccination-coverage","year":2025},{"id":"s24","title":"Population (long-run). Underlying data: HYDE 3.3 (2023); Gapminder (2022); UN World Population Prospects (2024)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/population","year":2024},{"id":"s25","title":"Global immunization efforts have saved at least 154 million lives over the past 50 years (news release)","publisher":"World Health Organization","url":"https://www.who.int/news/item/24-04-2024-global-immunization-efforts-have-saved-at-least-154-million-lives-over-the-past-50-years","year":2024},{"id":"s26","title":"Shattock AJ et al. Contribution of vaccination to improved survival and health: modelling 50 years of the Expanded Programme on Immunization. The Lancet 403(10441):2307-2316","publisher":"The Lancet (open-access full text on PubMed Central, PMC11140691; PMID 38705159)","url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11140691/","year":2024},{"id":"s27","title":"Erisman JW, Sutton MA, Galloway J, Klimont Z, Winiwarter W. How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world. Nature Geoscience 1(10):636-639. doi:10.1038/ngeo325","publisher":"Nature Geoscience","url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo325","year":2008},{"id":"s28","title":"How many people does synthetic fertilizer feed? (Hannah Ritchie)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-people-does-synthetic-fertilizer-feed","year":2017},{"id":"s29","title":"Smallpox (topic page; cites Henderson, 'The eradication of smallpox - An overview of the past, present, and future', and Crosby 1993)","publisher":"Our World in Data","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/smallpox","year":2023},{"id":"s30","title":"Commemorating smallpox eradication - a legacy of hope, for COVID-19 and other diseases (news release)","publisher":"World Health Organization","url":"https://www.who.int/news/item/08-05-2020-commemorating-smallpox-eradication-a-legacy-of-hope-for-covid-19-and-other-diseases","year":2020},{"id":"s31","title":"Measles (fact sheet, 15 July 2026)","publisher":"World Health Organization","url":"https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/measles","year":2026},{"id":"s32","title":"Poliomyelitis (fact sheet, 2 April 2025)","publisher":"World Health Organization","url":"https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/poliomyelitis","year":2025},{"id":"s33","title":"World malaria report 2025: Addressing the threat of antimalarial drug resistance (report page, 4 December 2025)","publisher":"World Health Organization","url":"https://www.who.int/teams/global-malaria-programme/reports/world-malaria-report-2025","year":2025},{"id":"s34","title":"Tuberculosis (fact sheet, 24 March 2026)","publisher":"World Health Organization","url":"https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/tuberculosis","year":2026},{"id":"s35","title":"Global HIV & AIDS statistics - Fact sheet (2025 data, released July 2026)","publisher":"UNAIDS","url":"https://www.unaids.org/en/resources/fact-sheet","year":2026},{"id":"s36","title":"Blood safety and availability (fact sheet, 12 June 2026)","publisher":"World Health Organization","url":"https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/blood-safety-and-availability","year":2026},{"id":"s37","title":"ITU's Facts and Figures 2025 (press release, 17 November 2025)","publisher":"International Telecommunication Union","url":"https://www.itu.int/en/mediacentre/Pages/PR-2025-11-17-Facts-and-Figures.aspx","year":2025},{"id":"s39","title":"Women's universal right to vote, by country. Underlying data: Lexical Index of Electoral Democracy (LIED) v6.9 (2026)","publisher":"Our World in Data / LIED","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/universal-suffrage-women-lexical","year":2026},{"id":"s38","title":"Nordhaus WD. Two Centuries of Productivity Growth in Computing. The Journal of Economic History 67(1):128-159","publisher":"Cambridge University Press (EconPapers/RePEc record)","url":"https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:cup:jechis:v:67:y:2007:i:01:p:128-159_00","year":2007}],"verification":{"status":"corrected","checkedAt":"2026-09-24","corrections":["Re-downloaded every Our World in Data series (World rows, full CSV plus metadata) and compared all points: every value in all 24 series matches the source within rounding; the two IHME infectious-disease series (no CSV allowed) were checked against Our World in Data's indicator API values and also match.","Malaria fact updated from the World Malaria Report 2024 (12.7 million deaths and 2.2 billion cases averted, 2000-2023) to the latest World Malaria Report 2025 (14 million deaths and 2.3 billion cases averted since 2000, through 2024); source s33 replaced accordingly.","Haber-Bosch births fact corrected: Erisman et al. (2008) count the 42% of births (about 4 billion people) from 1908, the year of Haber's patent, not from commercialization 'around 1910'; checked against the paper's full text, and s27 added to both Haber-Bosch facts.","s27 URL changed from the NORA repository record (no full text) to the publisher's article page at nature.com.","s26 URL changed from PubMed (returns HTTP 203 to scripted requests) to the open-access PubMed Central full text; 154 million, 101 million infants, 40%/52% share of infant-mortality decline and 93.7 million measles deaths averted confirmed there, and s26 added to the measles fact.","Child-mortality note corrected: world values switch from Gapminder to UN IGME in 1980, not 1990 (the old note also implied a 1950 break).","World GDP note corrected: pre-1990 values are the 1990 World Bank level projected backward with Maddison growth rates, not raw Maddison benchmarks; s5 underlying-source title corrected to Our World in Data's citation (Eurostat, OECD, IMF and World Bank WDI 2026; Maddison Project Database 2023; Maddison Database 2010).","Literacy series: unit changed from '% of population aged 15+' to '% of adults' because pre-1970 sources use varying age cut-offs; note now flags the 1940-to-1950 dip and the 1960-to-1975 jump as source-switch artefacts, and the literacy fact now says 'read and write' and flags the looser early definitions.","GDP-per-capita note corrected: the world aggregate is missing 2011-2014 as well as non-benchmark years before 2010.","Democracy-share note refined: the post-2016 fall reflects V-Dem's classification of India (from 2017) and of Indonesia and Mexico (from 2024); the old 'peaked around 2000-2010' replaced with the verified 1999-2016 plateau and 2001 peak.","Suffrage note corrected: replaced the unsupported claim that only existing countries are counted with the verified LIED coverage totals (about 143 countries in 1900, 199 in 2025); confirmed that in LIED the universal-suffrage count equals the count of countries with women's suffrage; s39 added to the series.","Infectious-disease notes: added Our World in Data's exact definition (communicable, maternal, neonatal and nutritional diseases minus maternal/neonatal and nutritional causes) and IHME's non-commercial licence.","s25 added to the DTP3 series (source of the 'fewer than 5% of infants in 1974' claim) and to the polio-paralysis fact; smallpox source s11 now names WHO (2011) as the underlying dataset; blood-donation fact now says the data mostly cover 2023 and come from 168 countries covering 97% of the world's population.","All 39 source URLs resolve (HTTP 200 on GET). Our World in Data grapher pages return 404 to HEAD requests but 200 to normal GET requests, so the HEAD check alone is misleading for them."],"unresolved":["IHME Global Burden of Disease data (infectious-disease series s9/s10) are licensed under a free-of-charge non-commercial user agreement and are not redistributable through Our World in Data; confirm the site's use complies before publishing these values.","No authoritative, openly downloadable cost-per-GFLOP time series was found; the inflation-adjusted price of computer memory (s20) is used as the computing-cost series, supported by Nordhaus's (2007) estimate of performance gains (s38).","The brief asks for 1900-2024 at least every 10 years, but world data do not exist for several series: food supply and cereal yields start in 1961 (FAO), air traffic in 1950, smallpox cases in 1920, infectious-disease deaths and DTP3 coverage in 1980, World Bank poverty in 1990, internet use in 2005; life expectancy has only 1900 and 1913 before 1950, and literacy has no world value between 1960 and 1975.","Pre-1950 world estimates (life expectancy, child mortality, GDP, literacy, poverty) are reconstructions with wide uncertainty; the historical literacy figures in particular use inconsistent definitions.","The Erisman et al. (2008) paper is paywalled at the publisher; its figures were checked against a full-text copy posted on a Caltech course page (rpgroup.caltech.edu), which is not cited as a source."]}},"worldPopulationPre1960":{"title":"World population, 1880-1960","description":"Annual world population from 1880 to 1960, to extend the World Bank series (which starts in 1960) backwards for per-capita and share-of-population context. 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published","sourceIds":["s1","s2"],"note":"Differs from the UN world total by only a few people because OWID sums individual countries."}],"range":{"low":2400000000,"high":2558000000,"spreadPctOfMainValue":6.3},"sourceIds":["s1","s2","s4","s5","s6","s7","s8","s9","s10"]},{"year":1955,"mainSeriesValue":2740213792,"estimates":[{"estimate":"HYDE 3.3 (2023)","population":2759935000,"precision":"rounded to the nearest thousand","sourceIds":["s7"]},{"estimate":"HYDE 3.5 (2025)","population":2759528000,"precision":"rounded to the nearest thousand","sourceIds":["s8"]},{"estimate":"Our World in Data long-run series (sum of UN WPP 2024 country values)","population":2740213796,"precision":"as published","sourceIds":["s1","s2"],"note":"Differs from the UN world total by only a few people because OWID sums individual countries."}],"range":{"low":2740213792,"high":2759935000,"spreadPctOfMainValue":0.7},"sourceIds":["s1","s2","s4","s7","s8"]},{"year":1960,"mainSeriesValue":3015470894,"estimates":[{"estimate":"UN Population Division, The World at Six Billion (1999)","population":3020000000,"precision":"published to the nearest 10 million (0.01 billion)","sourceIds":["s5"]},{"estimate":"HYDE 3.3 (2023)","population":3019267000,"precision":"rounded to the nearest thousand","sourceIds":["s7"]},{"estimate":"HYDE 3.5 (2025)","population":3018592000,"precision":"rounded to the nearest thousand","sourceIds":["s8"]},{"estimate":"Maddison Project Database 2023","population":3028866000,"precision":"rounded to the nearest thousand","sourceIds":["s9","s10"]},{"estimate":"Our World in Data long-run series (sum of UN WPP 2024 country values)","population":3015470889,"precision":"as published","sourceIds":["s1","s2"],"note":"Differs from the UN world total by only a few people because OWID sums individual countries."},{"estimate":"World Bank WDI SP.POP.TOTL, current API value (last updated 2026-07-13)","population":3021512598,"precision":"as published","sourceIds":["s11"]}],"range":{"low":3015470889,"high":3028866000,"spreadPctOfMainValue":0.4},"sourceIds":["s1","s2","s4","s5","s7","s8","s9","s10","s11"]}],"milestones":[{"event":"World population passes 2 billion","year":1927,"sourceIds":["s5"],"consistencyWithMainSeries":"Main series: 1,996,813,608 in 1926 and 2,014,848,732 in 1927, so the crossing falls in 1926-27.","consistencySourceIds":["s1"]},{"event":"World population passes 3 billion","year":1960,"sourceIds":["s5"],"consistencyWithMainSeries":"Main series: 2,965,950,351 in 1959 and 3,015,470,894 in 1960, so the crossing falls in 1959-60.","consistencySourceIds":["s1","s4"]}],"crossCheck":{"year":1960,"thisFileValue":3015470894,"thisFileSourceIds":["s4"],"referenceValueGivenInTask":3015470894,"differenceFromReference":0,"differencePctFromReference":0.0,"worldBankCurrentValue":3021512598,"worldBankCurrentValueSourceIds":["s11"],"differenceFromWorldBankCurrent":-6041704,"differencePctFromWorldBankCurrent":-0.2,"owidValue":3015470889,"owidValueSourceIds":["s1"],"verdict":"Our 1960 figure (UN WPP 2024: 3,015,470,894) matches the reference figure of 3,015,470,894 exactly, so the join with the 1960+ series is seamless if that figure is used. However, the World Bank API queried on 2026-09-24 (series last updated 2026-07-13) now reports 3,021,512,598 for 1960, which is also the value in data/context/wb_population.json. That is 6,041,704 people (0.20%) higher than the UN figure. The World Bank's population indicator lists national statistical offices and Eurostat as sources alongside the UN, so its world figure can differ slightly from the UN's own total; we did not trace which countries account for this particular gap. A 0.2% step is far smaller than the uncertainty in any pre-1950 estimate, but charts joining the two series should either use the UN WPP 2024 values for 1950 onward or note the small break at 1960.","sourceIds":["s4","s11","s12","s1"]},"method":"Years 1880-1949 come from Our World in Data's long-run population series (indicator population_historical, downloaded as CSV on 2026-09-24). For 1800-1949 that series uses Gapminder's Population dataset, version 7, and OWID produces the world figure by adding up individual countries within today's borders. Years 1950-1960 come directly from the UN World Population Prospects 2024 file (medium variant, World, mid-year), converted from thousands to people; these are the same figures OWID uses for 1950 onward (OWID's world total, built by adding up countries, differs from the UN's own world total by fewer than ten people in each of these years). Values are stored to the person exactly as published, but that precision is not real before 1950: the 'alternativeEstimates' block lists independent estimates for benchmark years (UN 1999, HYDE 3.3 and 3.5, the Maddison Project Database 2023, Angus Maddison's own 2010 database for 1913, and older estimates compiled by the U.S. Census Bureau), and their spread is a fairer guide to the true uncertainty: from the lowest to the highest listed figure it is about 13% of the main value for 1900 and about 6% for 1950 (see each year's 'range'). Annual values between benchmark years in the historical series are the compilers' modelled estimates, not annual counts. HYDE and Maddison figures were read from Our World in Data's catalog copies of those datasets, which store the numbers as single-precision floating point (accurate to a few hundred people at this scale), so they are rounded here to the nearest thousand. A small break is possible at 1949/1950, where the series switches from Gapminder to the UN, because the two sources use different methods.","caveats":["Pre-1950 world population figures are reconstructions by historians and demographers, not a single count, and published reconstructions disagree with one another (see alternativeEstimates).","Independent estimates for 1900 run from roughly 1.55 to 1.76 billion (see alternativeEstimates); treat any pre-1950 figure as accurate to within a few percent at best.","Our World in Data builds its historical figures country by country on present-day borders and adds them up. In principle the border convention does not change a world total, since every territory is counted once either way; in practice the world figure is only as good as the country-level reconstructions behind it.","The Maddison Project Database is designed mainly for comparing economic growth and income over time; its 2023 benchmark-year world totals scatter more widely than the other sources (lowest of all listed estimates for 1900 and 1940, highest for 1920 and 1960), so they are shown only as a cross-check and are not used in the main series. The 1913 cross-check comes from the earlier 2010 Maddison database, which has a 1913 benchmark the 2023 regional table lacks.","For 1950 onward the UN file dates each figure to the middle of the year (mid-period 1950.5, 1951.5, and so on), i.e. roughly 1 July."],"sources":[{"id":"s1","title":"Population (long-run series, indicator population_historical) - chart and CSV download","publisher":"Our World in Data (data from HYDE 2023, Gapminder 2022, UN WPP 2024)","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/population","year":2024},{"id":"s2","title":"What are the sources for Our World in Data's population estimates?","publisher":"Our World in Data (Edouard Mathieu and Lucas Rodes-Guirao)","url":"https://ourworldindata.org/population-sources","year":2022},{"id":"s3","title":"Population documentation (GD003) - the page now documents version 8; the OWID series used here is built on version 7","publisher":"Gapminder","url":"https://www.gapminder.org/data/documentation/gd003/","year":null},{"id":"s4","title":"World Population Prospects 2024: Total population by sex, annual, medium variant (WPP2024_TotalPopulationBySex.csv.gz)","publisher":"United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division","url":"https://population.un.org/wpp/assets/Excel%20Files/1_Indicator%20(Standard)/CSV_FILES/WPP2024_TotalPopulationBySex.csv.gz","year":2024},{"id":"s5","title":"The World at Six Billion (ESA/P/WP.154), Table 1: World population, year 0 to near stabilization; Box 3: World population milestones","publisher":"United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division","url":"https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/files/documents/2020/Jan/un_1999_6billion.pdf","year":1999},{"id":"s6","title":"Historical Estimates of World Population","publisher":"U.S. Census Bureau, International Programs","url":"https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/international-programs/historical-est-worldpop.html","year":2025},{"id":"s7","title":"History Database of the Global Environment (HYDE 3.3), all indicators - Our World in Data catalog copy (World = HYDE 'Total' row)","publisher":"Utrecht University / PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, via Our World in Data","url":"https://catalog.ourworldindata.org/garden/hyde/2024-01-02/all_indicators/all_indicators.parquet","year":2023},{"id":"s8","title":"History Database of the Global Environment (HYDE 3.5), all indicators - Our World in Data catalog copy (World = HYDE 'Total' row)","publisher":"Utrecht University / PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, via Our World in Data","url":"https://catalog.ourworldindata.org/garden/hyde/2026-06-08/all_indicators/all_indicators.parquet","year":2025},{"id":"s9","title":"Maddison Project Database 2023 (release page)","publisher":"Groningen Growth and Development Centre, University of Groningen (Bolt and van Zanden)","url":"https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/historicaldevelopment/maddison/releases/maddison-project-database-2023","year":2024},{"id":"s10","title":"Maddison Project Database 2023 - Our World in Data catalog copy (World population from the database's 'Regional data' sheet)","publisher":"Our World in Data (data from Bolt and van Zanden, Maddison Project Database 2023)","url":"https://catalog.ourworldindata.org/garden/ggdc/2024-04-26/maddison_project_database/maddison_project_database.parquet","year":2024},{"id":"s11","title":"World Development Indicators API: Population, total (SP.POP.TOTL), World, 1960-1961","publisher":"World Bank","url":"https://api.worldbank.org/v2/country/WLD/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?format=json&date=1960:1961","year":2026},{"id":"s12","title":"World Development Indicators API: indicator metadata for SP.POP.TOTL (source note and source organizations)","publisher":"World Bank","url":"https://api.worldbank.org/v2/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?format=json","year":2026},{"id":"s13","title":"Maddison Database 2010: Historical Statistics of the World Economy, 1-2008 AD, Table 1 (Population levels), Excel horizontal file, 'World Total' row","publisher":"Groningen Growth and Development Centre, University of Groningen (Angus Maddison)","url":"https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/historicaldevelopment/maddison/data/md2010_horizontal.xlsx","year":2010}],"verification":{"status":"corrected","checkedAt":"2026-09-24","corrections":["Source s5 (UN, The World at Six Billion) was cited for the 2-billion (1927) and 3-billion (1960) milestones, but its title pointed only to Table 1; the milestones are in Box 3 of the same report. Title now names both.","The 1950 cross-check entry labelled 'U.S. Census Bureau, as compiled by the U.S. Census Bureau' was relabelled as the Census Bureau's own estimate (the 'USCB' column, 2,558 million), which is what the table shows.","Maddison caveat said its 2023 totals were highest of all listed estimates for 1920 only; they are also the highest for 1960 (3,028,866,000). Added.","Softened the caveat that summing present-day-border country figures 'does not change the result': true in principle, but the world figure depends on the quality of the country reconstructions.","Method wording 'compact format' replaced with the verified storage type (single-precision float) that explains why HYDE and Maddison catalog values are rounded to the nearest thousand.","Gap filled: the brief lists 1913 as a required benchmark but it had no independent cross-check. Added Angus Maddison's 2010 database World Total for 1913 (1,792,925 thousand; new source s13), 0.7% below the main series value."],"unresolved":["The joined series has a small break at 1960: this file's 1960 value (UN WPP 2024, 3,015,470,894, matching the brief's reference) is 6,041,704 (0.2%) below the current World Bank API value (3,021,512,598, last updated 2026-07-13) that scripts/04_build_site_data.py uses from 1960 on. Documented in crossCheck; not traced country by country.","Pre-1950 values are Gapminder v7 reconstructions stored to the person; that precision is not real. Independent estimates differ by up to about 13% of the main value for 1900 (see alternativeEstimates).","The Our World in Data grapher URL (s1) returns 404 to a HEAD request but 200 to a normal GET request (browser or curl without -I); the page and its CSV download work."]}},"faithComparison":{"totalHardLaureates":757,"groups":[{"id":"jewish","label":"Jewish","population":14800000,"populationYear":2020,"count":197,"byCategory":{"physics":60,"chemistry":37,"medicine":60,"economics":40},"laureates":[]},{"id":"muslim","label":"Muslim","population":2000000000,"populationYear":2020,"count":3,"byCategory":{"physics":1,"chemistry":2,"medicine":0,"economics":0},"laureates":[{"name":"Abdus Salam","year":1979,"category":"physics"},{"name":"Ahmed Zewail","year":1999,"category":"chemistry"},{"name":"Aziz Sancar","year":2015,"category":"chemistry"}],"leftOut":[{"name":"Omar M. Yaghi","confidence":"probable"},{"name":"Ferid Murad","confidence":"disputed"}]},{"id":"hindu","label":"Hindu","population":1177860000,"populationYear":2020,"count":4,"byCategory":{"physics":2,"chemistry":0,"medicine":1,"economics":1},"laureates":[{"name":"Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman","year":1930,"category":"physics"},{"name":"H. Gobind Khorana","year":1968,"category":"medicine"},{"name":"Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar","year":1983,"category":"physics"},{"name":"Amartya Sen","year":1998,"category":"economics"}],"leftOut":[{"name":"Venkatraman Ramakrishnan","confidence":"probable"}]},{"id":"buddhist","label":"Buddhist","population":324000000,"populationYear":2020,"count":1,"byCategory":{"physics":0,"chemistry":1,"medicine":0,"economics":0},"laureates":[{"name":"Hideki Shirakawa","year":2000,"category":"chemistry"}],"leftOut":[{"name":"Tasuku Honjo","confidence":"disputed"}]}],"caveats":["Classifying people by religious background is imperfect. Many laureates did not write about their family's faith, and sources differ on some cases, so counts for non-Jewish groups are documented minimums.","Religion is not the cause of any scientific achievement. These figures describe who won, not why.","Access to universities, research funding and laboratories, colonial history, war and displacement, and the prize's historical concentration in Western Europe and North America shape these numbers far more than any group trait.","Populations are 2020 snapshots (Pew, 2025), while prizes span 1901-2025. Group shares of world population changed over that period, so per-capita rates are approximate.","The numerator counts heritage (a parent's background) while Pew counts current self-identification, which can inflate or distort per-capita rates, especially for small counts.","Community tallies sometimes differ from these counts (for example, some Muslim tallies list 5 science laureates by including Moungi Bawendi). Those differences are listed as left out, above."],"sources":[{"id":"s1","title":"Muslim population change, 2010-2020","publisher":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/muslim-population-change/"},{"id":"s2","title":"How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020","publisher":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/"},{"id":"s3","title":"Abdus Salam","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdus_Salam"},{"id":"s4","title":"The Nobel gap: Reclaiming the Muslim legacy of knowledge","publisher":"The Daily Star (Bangladesh)","url":"https://www.thedailystar.net/opinion/views/news/nobel-gap-reclaiming-muslim-legacy-knowledge-4020391"},{"id":"s5","title":"Interview with Ahmed Zewail (oral history)","publisher":"Caltech Archives","url":"https://digital.archives.caltech.edu/collections/OralHistories/OH_Zewail_A/OH_Zewail_A.pdf"},{"id":"s6","title":"Ahmed H. Zewail - Biographical","publisher":"Nobel Foundation","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1999/zewail/biographical/"},{"id":"s7","title":"Ahmed Zewail","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_Zewail"},{"id":"s8","title":"Aziz Sancar - Biographical","publisher":"Nobel Foundation","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2015/sancar/biographical/"},{"id":"s9","title":"Aziz Sancar","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aziz_Sancar"},{"id":"s10","title":"Omar Yaghi Nobel Prize in Chemistry profile","publisher":"Khaleej Times","url":"https://www.khaleejtimes.com/world/omar-yaghi-nobel-prize-chemistry-profile"},{"id":"s11","title":"Omar M. Yaghi","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_M._Yaghi"},{"id":"s12","title":"Ferid Murad - Biographical","publisher":"Nobel Foundation","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1998/murad/biographical/"},{"id":"s13","title":"Ferid Murad","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferid_Murad"},{"id":"s14","title":"Moungi Bawendi","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moungi_Bawendi"},{"id":"s15","title":"Moungi Bawendi: The Tunisian-American Chemistry Nobel Prize laureate","publisher":"The National","url":"https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/tunisia/2023/10/05/moungi-bawendi-the-tunisian-american-chemistry-nobel-prize-laureate/"},{"id":"s16","title":"Leading Science: Muslim Nobel Laureates in Science","publisher":"ILKE Foundation","url":"https://platform.ilke.org.tr/en/analyze/leading-science-muslim-nobel-laureates-in-science/"},{"id":"s17","title":"How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 (full report PDF)","publisher":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf"},{"id":"s18","title":"C. V. Raman","publisher":"New World Encyclopedia","url":"https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/C._V._Raman"},{"id":"s19","title":"C. V. Raman","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._V._Raman"},{"id":"s20","title":"Iyer","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iyer"},{"id":"s21","title":"H. Gobind Khorana - Biographical","publisher":"Nobel Foundation","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1968/khorana/biographical/"},{"id":"s22","title":"Har Gobind Khorana","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana"},{"id":"s23","title":"Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar"},{"id":"s24","title":"Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar - Biographical","publisher":"Nobel Foundation","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1983/chandrasekhar/biographical/"},{"id":"s25","title":"Amartya Sen - Biographical","publisher":"Nobel Foundation","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/1998/sen/biographical/"},{"id":"s26","title":"Amartya Sen","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amartya_Sen"},{"id":"s27","title":"Becoming Amartya Sen (review of Home in the World)","publisher":"New York Review of Books","url":"https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2022/12/08/becoming-amartya-sen-home-in-the-world/"},{"id":"s28","title":"From Chidambaram to Cambridge: A Life in Science (Nobel autobiography)","publisher":"Nobel Foundation","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2009/ramakrishnan/biographical/"},{"id":"s29","title":"The Ashkenazim of India","publisher":"American Enterprise Institute","url":"https://www.aei.org/foreign-and-defense-policy/asia/the-ashkenazim-of-india/"},{"id":"s30","title":"Abhijit Banerjee","publisher":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhijit_Banerjee"},{"id":"s31","title":"Abhijit Banerjee - Biographical","publisher":"Nobel Foundation","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/2019/banerjee/biographical/"},{"id":"s32","title":"Buddhist population change, 2010-2020","publisher":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/buddhist-population-change/"},{"id":"s33","title":"Hideki Shirakawa - Biographical","publisher":"Nobel Foundation","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2000/shirakawa/biographical/"},{"id":"s34","title":"Tasuku Honjo - Biographical","publisher":"Nobel Foundation","url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2018/honjo/biographical/"},{"id":"s35","title":"Honjo relatives in Toyama react (2018-10-02, archived)","publisher":"Kitanihon Broadcasting (KNB)","url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181003130436/http://admin.knb.ne.jp/news/detail/?sid=19731"},{"id":"s36","title":"Honjo Tasuku","publisher":"Japanese Wikipedia","url":"https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E5%BA%B6%E4%BD%91"}]}}